Weismann August
Studies in the Theory of Descent, Volume I
VII. Phyletic Development of the Markings of the Sphingidæ: Summary and Conclusion
If, from the form possessed by many of the caterpillars of the Sphingidæ on their emergence from the egg, we may venture to draw a conclusion concerning the oldest phyletic stage, these larvæ were originally completely destitute of marking. The characteristic caudal horn must be older than the existing markings, since it is present in the younger stages (except in cases where it is altogether wanting), and is generally even larger than at a later age.
There is, however, further evidence that there were once Sphinx-larvæ without any markings. Such a species now exists. I do not mean the boring caterpillars of the Sesiidæ,160 which live in the dark, and are therefore colourless, but I refer to a large larva (over six centimeters long) preserved in spirit in the Berlin Museum,161 which, from its form, belongs to the Smerinthus group. It possesses a caudal horn, and on the whole upper surface is covered with short and sparsely scattered bristles, such as occur in the Sesiidæ. The colour of this unknown insect appears to have been light green, although it now shows only a yellowish shade. Every trace of marking is absent, and it thus corresponds exactly with the youngest stages of the majority of the existing Sphinx-larvæ – even to the short bristles sparsely scattered over the whole upper surface of its body. We have therefore, so to speak, a living fossil before us, and it would be of great interest to ascertain its history.
All the data furnished by the developmental history go to show that of the three kinds of markings which occur in the Sphingidæ, viz., longitudinal and oblique stripes and spots, the first is the oldest. Among the species which are ornamented with oblique stripes or spots there are many which are longitudinally striped in their young stages, but the reverse case never occurs – young larvæ never show spots or oblique stripes when the adult is only striped longitudinally.
The first and oldest marking of the caterpillars of the Sphingidæ was therefore the longitudinal striping, or, more precisely speaking, the subdorsal, to which dorsal and spiracular lines may have been added. That this second stage of phyletic development has also been preserved in existing species has already been sufficiently shown; the greater portion of one group, the Macroglossinæ, has indeed remained at this stage of development.
From the biological value which must be attributed to this kind of marking, its origination by natural selection presents no difficulty. The first rudiments of striping must have been useful, since they must have broken up the large surface of the body of the caterpillar into several portions, and would thus have rendered it less conspicuous to its enemies.
Thus it is not difficult to perceive how a whole group of genera could have made shift with this low grade of marking up to the present time. Colour and marking are not the only means of offence and defence possessed by these insects; and it is just such simply-marked larvæ as those of the Macroglossinæ which have the protective habit of feeding only at night, and of concealing themselves by day. Moreover, under certain conditions of life the longitudinal stripes may be a better means of protection, even for a Sphinx-larva, than any other marking; and all those species in which this pattern is retained at the present time live either among grasses or on Coniferæ.
It cannot be properly said that the second form of marking – the oblique stripes – has been developed out of the first. If these had arisen by the transformation of the longitudinal stripes, the two forms could not exist side by side. This is the case, however, both in certain species in the adult state (Calymnia Panopus162), as well as in others during their young stages (most beautifully seen in Smerinthus Populi, Fig. 56). Various facts tend to show that the oblique stripes appeared in the phyletic development later than the longitudinal lines. In the first place they appear later than the latter in the ontogeny of certain species. This is the case with Chærocampa Elpenor and Porcellus, in which, however, they certainly do not reach a high state of development. Then again, the longitudinal lines disappear completely in the course of the ontogeny, whilst the oblique stripes alone maintain their ground. Thus, the subdorsal line vanishes at a very early stage, with the exception of a small residue,163 in all native species of Smerinthus. I have already attempted to show that new characters are only acquired in the last stage, and that if still newer ones are then added, the former disappear from the last stage, and are transferred back to a younger one. Characters vanish therefore from a stage in the same order as they were acquired.
Finally, among the genera with longitudinal stripes (e. g. Macroglossa) we know certain species which, when at an advanced age, possess oblique stripes (M. Fuciformis), although these slant in a direction opposite to those of most of the other larvæ of the Sphingidæ. These are, however, always species which differ from their allies in their mode of life, not feeding on grasses or low plants, but on large-leaved shrubs. If we were able to ascertain the ontogeny of these species, we should find that the oblique stripes appeared late in life, as has already been shown in the case of Pterogon Œnotheræ.
If it be asked why the longitudinal lines were first formed, and then the oblique stripes, it may be replied that the physical constitution of these caterpillars would be more easily able to give rise to simple longitudinal lines than to complicated oblique stripes crossing their segments.164 It may perhaps also be suggested that the oldest Sphingidæ lived entirely on low plants among grasses, and in the course of time gradually took to shrubs and trees. At the present time the majority of the Sphinx-larvæ still live on low plants, and but few on trees, such caterpillars generally belonging to certain special genera.
The character of oblique stripes becomes perfected by the addition of coloured edges, the latter, as is self-evident, having been added subsesequently.
The third chief constituent of the Sphinx-markings, i. e. the spots – whether perfect ocelli or only ring-spots – in two of the special genera here considered, arise on the subdorsal, where they are either deposited (Deilephila), or built up from a fragment of this line (Chærocampa). That these markings can, however, also originate independently of the subdorsal, is shown by the ocellus of Pterogon Œnotheræ, situated on the segment bearing the caudal horn. In this case, however, the ontogeny teaches us that the spot also succeeds the subdorsal, so that we can state generally that all these spot-markings are of later origin than the longitudinal striping.
The question as to the relative ages of the oblique stripes and the spot-marking does not admit of a general answer. In some cases (C. Elpenor and Porcellus) the oblique stripes disappear when the ocelli reach complete development, and we may therefore venture to conclude that in these cases the former appeared earlier in the phylogeny. But it is very probable that oblique stripes arose independently at different periods, just as longitudinal lines occur irregularly in quite distinct families. It would be a great error if we were to ascribe the possession of oblique stripes solely to descent from a common ancestor. The oblique markings found on certain species of Macroglossa (M. Corythus from India) have not been inherited from a remote period, but have been independently acquired by this or by some recent ancestral species. They have nothing to do genetically with the oblique stripes which occur in some species of Chærocampa (e. g. in C. Nessus, from India), or with those of the species of Smerinthus and Sphinx. They depend simply on analogous adaptation (Seidlitz165), i. e. on adaptation to an analogous environment.
The case is similar with the spot-markings. I have already shown that under certain conditions ring-spots may assume the exact appearance of eye-spots by the formation of a nucleus in the “mirror,” such as occurs occasionally in Deilephila Euphorbiæ (Fig. 43), more frequently in D. Galii, and as a rule in D. Vespertilio. Nevertheless, these markings arise in quite another manner to the eye-spots of the Chærocampinæ, with which they consequently have no genetic relation; the two genera became separated at a time when they neither possessed spot-markings. Further, in Pterogon Œnotheræ we find a third kind of spot-marking, which is most closely allied to the ocelli of the Chærocampa-larvæ, but is situated in quite another position, and must have originated in another manner, and consequently quite independently of these eye-spots.
It can also be readily understood why the first and second elements of the markings of the Sphingidæ should be mutually exclusive, and not the second and third or the first and third.
A light longitudinal line cutting the oblique stripes, considerably diminishes that resemblance to a leaf towards which the latter have a tendency, and it is therefore only found in cases where an adaptive marking can be of no effect on account of the small size of the caterpillar, i. e. in quite young stages. (See, for instance, Fig. 56, the first stage of S. Populi.) At a later period of life the old marking must give way to the new, and we accordingly find that the subdorsal line vanishes from all the segments on which oblique stripes are situated, and is only retained on the anterior segments where the latter are wanting. In some few cases both elements of marking certainly occur together, such as in Calymnia Panopus and Macroglossa Corythus; but the oblique stripes are, under these circumstances, shorter, and do not extend above the subdorsal line, and in Darapsa Chœrilus even become fused into the latter.166
In certain cases there may also be a special leaf structure imitated by the longitudinal lines, but on the whole the latter diminish the effect of the oblique stripes; and we accordingly find that not only has the subdorsal disappeared from those segments with oblique stripes, but that most larvæ with this last character are also without the otherwise broad spiracular and dorsal lines. This is the case with all the species of Smerinthus167 known to me, as well as with all the species of the genera Sphinx, Dolba, and Acherontia.
Oblique stripes and spot-markings are not, however, necessarily mutually exclusive in their action, and we also find these in certain cases united in the same larva, although certainly never in an equal state of perfection. Thus, Chærocampa Nessus168 possesses strongly marked oblique stripes, but feebly developed ocelli; and, on the other hand, Chærocampa Elpenor shows strongly developed eye-spots, but the earlier oblique stripes are at most only present as faint traces. This is easily explained by the mode of life. These caterpillars – at least such of them as are perfectly known – do not live on plants with large, strongly-ribbed leaves, and are even in the majority of individuals adapted to the colour of the soil; the oblique stripes have therefore in these cases only the significance of rudimentary formations.
That the first and third forms of markings also are not always mutually prejudicial in their action is shown by the case of Chærocampa Tersa, in which the eye-spots certainly appear to possess some other significance than as a means of causing terror. In most of the Chærocampa-larvæ the subdorsal line disappears in the course of the phylogeny, and it can be understood that the illusive appearance of the eye-spots would be more perfect if they did not stand upon a white line.
If we consider the small number of facts with which I have here been able to deal, the result of these investigations will not be deemed unsatisfactory. It has been possible to show that each of the three chief elements of the markings of the Sphingidæ have a biological significance, and their origin by means of natural selection has thus been made to appear probable. It has further been possible to show that the first rudiments of these markings must also have been of use; and it thus appears to me that their origin by means of natural selection has been proved to demonstration. Moreover, it has not been difficult to understand the displacement of the primary elements of the markings by secondary characters added at a later period, as likewise an essential effect of natural selection. Finally, it has been possible to explain also the subordinate or accessory elements of the markings, partly by the action of natural selection, and partly as the result of markings formerly present acting by correlation.
From the origin and gradual evolution of the markings of the Sphingidæ we may accordingly sketch the following picture: —
The oldest Sphinx-larvæ were without markings; they were probably protected only by adaptive colouring, and a large caudal horn, and by being armed with short bristles.
Their successors, through natural selection, became longitudinally striped; they acquired a subdorsal line extending from the horn to the head, as well as a spiracular, and sometimes also a dorsal, line. The caterpillars thus marked must have been best hidden on those plants in which an arrangement of parallel linear parts predominated; and we may venture to suppose that at this period most of the larvæ of the Sphingidæ lived on or among such plants (grasses).
At a later period oblique stripes were added to the longitudinal lines, the former (almost always) slanting across the seven hindmost segments from the back towards the feet in the direction of the caudal horn. Whether these stripes all arose simultaneously, or, as is more probable, whether only one at first appeared, which was then transferred to the other segments by correlation assisted by natural selection, cannot, at least from the facts available, at present be determined.
On the whole, as the oblique stripes became lengthened towards the back, the longitudinal lines disappeared, since they injured the deceptive effect of the stripes. In many species also there were formed dark or variegated coloured edges to the oblique stripes, in imitation of the shadow lines cast by the leaf-ribs.
Whilst one group of Sphingidæ (Sphinx, Smerinthus) were thus striving to make their external appearance approximate more and more to that of a ribbed leaf, others of the longitudinally striped species became developed in another manner.
Some of the latter lived indeed on bush-like leaved plants, but no oblique stripes were developed, because these would have been useless among the dense, narrow, and feebly-ribbed leaves of the food-plants. These caterpillars, from the earlier markings, simply retained the longitudinal lines, which, combined with a very close resemblance to the colour of the leaves, afforded them a high degree of protection against discovery. This protection would also have been enhanced if other parts of the food-plant, such as the berries (Hippophaës), were imitated in colour and position in such a manner that the large body of the caterpillar contrasted still less with its environment. In this way the first ring-spot probably arose in some species on only one – the penultimate segment.
As soon as this first pair of ring-spots had become an established character of the species, they had a tendency to become repeated on the other segments, advancing from the hind segments towards the front ones. Under certain conditions this repetition of the ring-spots might have been of great disadvantage to the species, and would therefore have been as far as possible prevented by natural selection (Hippophaës); in other cases, however, no disadvantage would have resulted – the caterpillar, well adapted to the colour of its food-plant, would not have been made more conspicuous by the small ring-spots, which might thus have become repeated on all the segments (Zygophylli). In cases like the two latter, striking colours must have been eliminated when inherited from an immediate ancestor; but on this point nothing can as yet be said with certainty.
In other cases the repetition of the ring-spots with strongly contrasted colours was neither prejudicial nor indifferent, but could be turned to the further advantage of the species. If a caterpillar fed on plants containing acrid juices (Euphorbiaceæ) which, by permeating its alimentary system, rendered it repulsive to other animals, the ring-spots commencing to appear (by repetition) would furnish an easy means for natural selection to adorn the species with brilliant colours, which would protect it from attack by acting as signals of distastefulness.
But if the dark spots stood on a light ground (Nicæa), they would present the appearance of eyes, and cause their possessors to appear alarming to smaller foes.
From the developmental histories and biological data at present before us, it cannot with certainty be said which of these two functions of the ring-spots was first acquired in the phylogeny, but we may perhaps suppose that their significance as a means of causing alarm was arrived at finally.
It may also be easily conceived that as the ring-spots became more and more complicated, they would occasionally have played other parts, being fashioned once again in these stages into imitations of portions of plants, such as a row of berries or flower-buds. For this, however, there is as yet no positive evidence.
As the ring-spots became detached from the subdorsal line out of which they had arisen, the latter disappeared more and more completely from the last ontogenetic stage, and receded towards the younger stages of life of the caterpillar – it became historical. This disappearance of the subdorsal may also be explained by the fact that the original longitudinal stripe imitating the linear arrangement of leaves would become meaningless, even if it did not always diminish the effect of the ring-spots. But characters which have become worthless are known in the course of time to become rudimentary, and finally to disappear altogether. I do not believe that disuse alone causes such characters to vanish, although in the case of active organs it may have a large share in this suppression. With markings it cannot, however, be a question of use or disuse – nevertheless they gradually disappear as soon as they become meaningless. I consider this to be the effect of the arrest of the controlling action of natural selection upon these characters (suspension of the so-called “conservative adaptation,” Seidlitz). Any variations may become of value if the character concerned is met with in the necessary state of fluctuation. That this process of extinction does not proceed rapidly, but rather with extreme slowness, is seen in the ontogeny of several species of Deilephila, which retain the now meaningless subdorsal line through a whole series of stages of life.
In another group of Sphinx-larvæ with longitudinal stripes, an eye-spot became developed independently of the subdorsal line, in the position of the caudal horn, which has here vanished with the exception of a small knob-like swelling. This character – which we now see perfected in Pterogon Œnotheræ– undoubtedly serves as a means of causing terror; but whether the incipient stages possessed the same significance, cannot be decided in the isolated case offered by the one species of the genus Pterogon possessing this marking.
In a third group of longitudinally striped caterpillars, the younger genus Chærocampa, eye-spots were developed directly from portions of the subdorsal line, at first only on the fourth and fifth segments. It can be here positively asserted that this character served as a means of alarm from its very commencement. It is certainly for this reason that we see the subdorsal line in the immediate neighbourhood of the spots disappear at an early stage, whilst it is retained on the other segments for a longer period. A portion of the younger (tropical) species of this group then developed similar, or nearly similar, ocelli on the remaining segments by correlation; and it may now have occurred that in solitary cases the eye-spots acquired another significance (C. Tersa?), becoming of use as a disguise by resembling berries or flower-buds. It is also conceivable that the eye-spots may in other cases have been converted into a warning sign of distastefulness.
In all those larvæ which possessed purely terrifying markings, however, not only was the original protective colouring preserved, but in most of them this colour gradually became replaced by a better one (adaptation of the adult larva to the soil). The oblique stripes imitating the leaf-ribs also are by no means lost, but are almost always present, although but feebly developed, and often only temporarily.
The pattern formed by the oblique stripes may also be retained, even with perfect adaptation to the soil, and may be converted to a new use by losing its sharpness, and, instead of imitating definite parts of plants, may become transformed into an irregular and confused marking, and thus best serve to represent the complicated lights and shadows, stripes, spots, &c., cast on the ground under low-growing plants from between the stems and dead leaves.
Just as in the case of ocellated species where caterpillars without eye-spots may retain and newly utilize their older markings, so larvæ having oblique stripes with the most diversely coloured edges may show the same markings in allied (younger?) species, both in a rudimentary and in a transformed condition. These markings may thus contribute to the formation of a latticed or reticulated pattern. Even the oldest marking, the subdorsal line, may still play a part, since its remnants cause certain portions of the complicated pattern to appear more strongly marked (S. Convolvuli). Finally, when an adaptation to a changing environment intersected by lights and shadows is required, new markings may be here added as in other cases, viz., dark streaks extending over the light surface of the whole caterpillar.
In concluding this essay, I may remark that, with respect to the wide and generally important question which gave rise to these investigations, a clearer and simpler result has been obtained than could have been expected, considering the complexity of the characters requiring to be traced to their causes, as well as our still highly imperfect knowledge of ontogenetic and biological facts.
For a long time I believed that it was not possible to trace all the forms of marking and their combinations to those causes which are known to produce transformation; I expected that there would be an inexplicable residue.
But this is not the case. Although it cannot yet be stated at first sight with certainty in every single instance how far any particular element of marking may have a biological value in the species possessing it, nevertheless it has been established that each of the elements of marking occurring in the larvæ of the Sphingidæ originally possessed a decided biological significance, which was produced by natural selection.
In the case of the three chief elements of the markings of the Sphingidæ, it can be further shown that not only the initial stages but also their ultimate perfection – the highest stages of their development, are of decided advantage to their possessors, and have a distinct biological value, so that the gradual development and improvement of these characters can be traced to the action of natural selection.
But although natural selection is the factor which has called into existence and perfected the three chief forms and certain of the subsidiary markings, in the repetition of the local character on the other segments, as well as in the formation of new elements of marking at the points of intersection of older characters now rudimentary, we can recognize a second factor which must be entirely innate in the organism, and which governs the uniformity of the bodily structure in such a manner that no part can become changed without exerting a certain action on the other parts – an innate law of growth (Darwin’s “correlation”).
Only once during the whole course of the investigations was it for an instant doubtful whether a phyletic vital force did not make itself apparent, viz., in the red spots accompanying the oblique stripes in several Smerinthus-larvæ. Closer analysis, however, enabled us to perceive most distinctly the wide gulf that separates “analogous variation” from the mystic phyletic vital force. Nothing further remains therefore for the action of this force in respect to the marking and colouring of the Sphingidæ, since several even of the subordinate markings can be traced to their causes, only the “dorsal spots” of our two native species of Chærocampa having been referred to correlation without decided proof. From the temporary inability to explain satisfactorily such an insignificant detail, no one will, however, infer the existence of such a cumbrous power as a phyletic vital force.
The final result to which these investigations have led us is therefore the following: – The action of a phyletic vital force cannot be recognized in the marking and colouring of the Sphingidæ; the origination and perfection of these characters depend entirely on the known factors of natural selection and correlation.
