Weismann August
Studies in the Theory of Descent, Volume I
The caterpillars remain unaltered till after four days, when, having a length of 17 millimeters, the second moult takes place, bringing with it changes quite as great as those which occurred with the first.
Third Stage
The caterpillar now assumes the shagreened appearance which it possesses in the adult state. Small white warts are arranged in rows from the dorsal to the spiracular line, and again underneath this line on the abdominal legs. These dots are not only of value as a character for differentiating the genera Deilephila and Chærocampa, but they also play a part in the peculiar spot-marking which will be shown later on. The ground-colour of the caterpillar is now light green (Fig. 40), replaced by black on certain parts. From the black “ground-area” of the ring-spots, two black triangles extend towards the posterior borders of the segments, but usually without reaching them.
The ring-spots are not essentially changed, although it may be observed that in most specimens the shagreen-dots under each ring-spot are somewhat larger, and stand closer together than in other places. In the following stage they become fused into a second white “mirror,” so that two ring-spots stand one above the other, their black ground-areas meeting. The formation of the second ring-spot sometimes takes place in the present stage (Fig. 42).
The subdorsal line has now completely vanished, whilst the spiracular line89 appears as a broad stripe above the legs. The horn is yellow with a black point, and the black spots on the head have increased in size.
Fourth Stage
The third moult, which again occurs after four days, is not accompanied by such important changes. The green ground-colour has now completely disappeared, and is replaced by a dull black. The caterpillars are now, as also in the previous stage, extremely variable. Thus, for example, a triangular patch of the green ground-colour may be retained on the posterior edge of the segments (Fig. 41), those specimens which possess this character generally having their markings retarded in development, as shown by the absence of the second “mirror” of the ring-spots.
In Fig. 41 the shagreen-dots from which this second “mirror” is subsequently formed, are distinctly larger than the others, and on the eleventh segment two of them have already coalesced.
Fifth Stage
After another period of four days, the fourth moult takes place. The marking remains the same, but the colours become more vivid; the brick-red of the head, horn, dorsal line and legs, changing into a fiery red. The spiracular line, formerly green alternating with yellow, generally becomes resolved into a row of reddish-yellow spots. Ten days later the caterpillar (8.5 centimeters in length), ceases to feed, and prepares for pupation.
In this last stage also there is great variability of colour, but although each particular character is subject to fluctuation, the individuals of the same brood show but little variation among themselves.90 Thus, the dorsal line is sometimes black, and sometimes red, or again, this colour interrupted with black, so that only small red spots mark its course. The head may be entirely red, or this colour mixed with black. On the under side of the caterpillar, red generally predominates, but in some specimens this is replaced by black. The ground-colour is also variable, being generally a shining brownish-black, but sometimes dull coaly black. The shagreen-dots are sometimes white and sometimes yellow, and the “mirrors” of the ring-spots are also often yellowish.
The most interesting variation, however, appears to me to be the following: – In many specimens from Kaiserstuhl (Breisgau), the red was unusually vivid, and was not limited to the ordinary places, but occupied also the triangles on the posterior edges of the segments (Fig. 44), which are green in the third and fourth stages (Fig. 42). This variety has also been figured by Hübner. In one individual (Fig. 43), the under ring-spots were wanting, whilst the upper ones possessed a beautiful red nucleus fading away anteriorly, and showing the first step in the formation of a complete eye-spot.
I cannot positively assert that a fifth moult occurs in the last ten days, although I am very doubtful whether this is the case. It is certain, however, that some time before pupation, and whilst the larva is still feeding, the striking colours fade out, and become replaced chiefly by black.
The ontogeny of this species is obviously but a very incomplete representation of its phyletic development. This is at once apparent from the large gap between the first and second stages. It is not possible that a row of ring-spots can have arisen suddenly; in all probability they have been developed from a subdorsal line, which in Euphorbiæ is now only indicated in the second stage by a faint line. This conjecture is raised to a certainty when we call in the aid of the remaining species of Deilephila.
Deilephila Nicæa, De Prunner
I only know this species from blown larvæ in Staudinger’s collection, and Duponchel’s figure, of which Fig. 51, Pl. VI. is a copy. The adult insect possesses two perfectly separated rows of ring-spots. Duponchel figures also two younger stages, of which the youngest is probably the third stage. The larva is 18 millimeters in length, of a leaf-green colour, and shows no trace of a subdorsal line, but possesses the two rows of ring-spots, which only differ from those of the succeeding stages in the green colour of the “mirror.”
Deilephila Dahlii, Treitschke
I am familiar with numerous specimens in various stages, collected in Sardinia by Dr. Staudinger, and preserved by inflation.
The first stage is blackish, and shows no kind of marking; thus agreeing with the corresponding stage of Euphorbiæ. The second stage is unfortunately not represented in Staudinger’s collection.
The third stage shows a row of ring-spots, which are, however, connected by a very distinct and sharply defined subdorsal line. In the fourth stage a second row of (under) ring-spots is added, whilst the subdorsal line generally at the same time disappears.
The caterpillar remains unchanged during the fifth stage, when it shows a great resemblance in marking to Euphorbiæ; neither does it appear to differ essentially from this species in colour, so far as can be judged from preserved specimens and single figures (in Duponchel and Hübner). I have, moreover, seen several larvæ in the last stage, and the subdorsal could be distinctly recognized as a broad light stripe.
Of the four groups, the second (that of Galii), appears to me to be of but very little importance, as I shall now proceed to show from the development of D. Vespertilio.
Deilephila Vespertilio, Fabricius
Hitherto I have unfortunately been unable to obtain fertile eggs of this species, so that I can say nothing about the first stage. The latter would have been of interest, not only because of the marking, but also because of the presence of a residual caudal horn.
I am likewise only acquainted with the end of the second stage, having found, at the end of June 1873, a single caterpillar on Epilobium Rosmarinifolium, just previous to its second ecdysis. In the case of such young caterpillars, however, the new characters which appear in the succeeding stage are generally perceptible through the transparent chitinous skin at the end of the preceding stage, so that the markings of the insect are thus caused to change. The caterpillar found was about 16 millimeters long, and of a beautiful smooth and shining grass-green (Fig. 13). A broad white subdorsal line extended from the first to the penultimate segment, from which the horn was completely absent. On close inspection the first traces of the ring-spots could be detected near the anterior edge of each segment as feeble, round, yellow, ill-defined spots, situated on the subdorsal line itself (Fig. 13). On the first segment only there is no spot, and here no ring-spot is afterwards formed. Besides these markings, there was only to be seen a yellowish-white spiracular line.
This solitary specimen unfortunately buried itself before the moult for which it had prepared itself had occurred; but this ecdysis is associated with a very important transformation. This statement is founded on a blown specimen in Staudinger’s collection; it is only 18 millimeters in length, but already shows the later grey colouring in place of the beautiful green. In this, the third stage, the broad white subdorsal line bears on each segment a red spot enclosed between black crescents above and below (Fig. 49 A). In the fourth stage, during which I have seen many living caterpillars, the subdorsal line is still distinctly present in some individuals (Fig. 14), but the spots (“mirrors”) are now completely surrounded by a narrow black ring (“ground-area”), which sharply separates them from the subdorsal line (Fig. 49 B). In the fifth stage this ring becomes a somewhat irregularly formed black “ground-area,” whilst the subdorsal line completely vanishes (Figs. 51 and 49 C). The mirrors are white, but generally have a reddish nucleus, which obviously corresponds to the primary yellow spots from which the whole development of the ring-spots originates. This character is, however, sometimes absent; and many other variations also occur in the earlier stages, all of which can be easily explained as cases of arrested, or retarded development. Thus, the subdorsal line often disappears earlier, and is only present in the fourth stage as a feeble light stripe.
Deilephila Galii, Fabricius
The markings of this species appear to be developed in a precisely similar manner to those of D. Vespertilio. The adult larva, as in the last species, shows no trace of a subdorsal line. A row of large black spots, each having an irregular round, yellowish-white nucleus, is situated on an olive-green, blackish-brown, brown, or dirty yellow ground. I have, unfortunately, also in this case been unable to procure fertile eggs. There is, however, one figure of a caterpillar, 2.5 centimeters long, by Hübner, which is of a light green colour, and has five longitudinal lines; one dorsal, two subdorsal, and a spiracular line. The subdorsal is white, and bears in the place of the ring-spots small red dots, whilst the line itself is bordered with black where the red spots are situated. Hübner has probably figured the third stage, so that we may venture to conclude that in the second stage there is a subdorsal line either quite free from spots, or only showing such feeble rudiments as are to be seen in the second stage of Vespertilio.
I found two specimens in the fourth stage in the Upper Engadine. One of these (Fig. 45) was already of a dark, blackish-green ground-colour91 with a broad, greenish-white subdorsal line sharply defined throughout its entire length, and containing ring-spots of a sulphur-yellow with an orange-red nucleus; the black “ground-area” did not encroach upon the subdorsal line, but was confined to two faint crescents situated above and below the “mirror.” Only the two foremost “mirrors” (on the second and third segments) were without nuclei.
The remaining peculiarities of coloration are shown in the figure. I may here only point out the shagreening present on the sides and a portion of the under surface.
The specimen figured was 3.3 centimeters long; a second example measured 2.8 centimeters in length, and was essentially similar, but showed that a considerable amount of variability must prevail at this stage of development. It was pitchy black, with a very indistinct subdorsal line and a few ring-spots, the “mirrors” of which were also sulphur-yellow, with the orange-red nucleus. The shagreening was quite as strong as in the first specimen, the dots being yellow instead of white. It is specially to be observed, because of its important theoretical bearing, that in this larva the ring-spots were absent on the three front segments, and on the fourth only, a faint indication of one could be perceived. In the caterpillar figured the ring-spots increase also in distinctness from the tail to the head.
Fifth Stage
The two specimens just mentioned, after moulting, acquired the well-known markings of the adult caterpillar already briefly described above. The fifth is the last stage.
The larva is known to occur in several variations, Rösel having figured it in three forms; light green, olive-green, and dirty yellow. It has not been since considered worth the trouble to attend to the subject of caterpillar coloration. Thus, Wilde,92 in his well-known work, takes no notice of Rösel’s observation, but simply describes the caterpillar of Galii as “blackish olive-green.”
Having had an opportunity of observing twenty-five adult specimens of this somewhat scarce species at one time, I am able to state that it is not in this instance di- or polymorphism, but a case presenting a great degree of variability, with which we have to deal. There are not several sharply-defined types of coloration; but the extremes are connected by numerous intermediate forms. The extreme forms, however, certainly preponderate.
I have never met with Rösel’s light green form; neither was there a dark green specimen among the twenty-five mentioned, and I only know this variety from single individuals, found at a former period. Among the twenty-five caterpillars; all gradations of colour occurred, from pitchy black to light clay-yellow, and even to an almost whitish-yellow; some were brownish-black, others of a beautiful chestnut-brown, and others yellowish brown, dark clay-yellow, or brownish-red. Out of twenty-one specimens of which the ground-colours were noted, there were nine black, nine clay-yellow, and three brown; each of the three groups again showing various minor modifications of colour. The other colours also varied somewhat. Thus, the “mirrors” were sometimes white, sometimes strong yellow, and occasionally they also contained a reddish nucleus.
The variations in the shagreening were especially interesting, inasmuch as these appeared to have a striking connection with the general colouring of the caterpillar. Black specimens seldom show such sparse shagreening as that represented in Pl. V., Fig. 46, but are generally thickly scattered with large shagreen-dots right up to the dorsal line (Fig. 47, Pl. VI.), then strikingly resembling the adult larva of D. Euphorbiæ. The light ochreous-yellow individuals, on the other hand, were sometimes entirely without shagreening (Fig. 48, Pl. VI.), being smooth, and much resembling the light ochreous-yellow or yellowish-red caterpillar of D. Nicæa (Fig. 51, Pl. VI.). I have never seen a caterpillar of Galii which showed traces of the subdorsal line in the last stage, nor have I ever met with one which possessed a second row of “mirror” spots; so that retrogression or a sudden advance in development does not appear to occur.
Of the North African D. Mauritanica, which likewise belongs to the Galii group, I have not been able to obtain specimens or figures of the younger stages. The adult caterpillar is very similar to that of Euphorbiæ, but differs in the absence of the second row of ring-spots. For this reason it must be regarded as a retarded form at an older stage of phyletic development.
I now proceed to the Livornica group.
Deilephila Livornica, Esper
This, the only European species here to be considered, possesses almost the same markings as Galii in its fourth stage, i. e., a subdorsal line with interpolated ring-spots. The species is known to be rare, and I have not been able to obtain living specimens, but I have examined several blown larvæ, all of which agree in having the ring-spots sharply distinct from the whitish subdorsal line, so that the latter is thereby interrupted. Figures of the adult larva are given in the works of Hübner, Boisduval, and Duponchel. In most specimens the ground-colour is brown, although Boisduval93 also figures a light green specimen; from which it may be inferred, from analogy with Galii and Vespertilio, that the first stages are green. In Dr. Staudinger’s collection there is a young larva, probably in the fourth stage, the ground-colour of which is light ash-grey. The dorsal and subdorsal lines are white, the latter showing in the positions where the ring-spots subsequently appear, small white “mirrors” with red nuclei, exactly corresponding to the stage of Vespertilio represented in Fig. 49 A, Pl. VI. The “mirrors” are nothing more than dilatations of the subdorsal line, which is not therefore interrupted by them. The black “ground-area” does not surround the “mirrors” completely, but borders them only above and below, and is much more strongly developed above, extending in this direction to the dorsal line.
The fourth group comprises the two species D. Lineata, Fabr., and D. Zygophylli, Ochs., the former being the North American representative of our D. Livornica, but differing in remaining permanently at the fourth stage of this last species. I am acquainted with D. Lineata only through the figure of the adult larva given by Abbot and Smith, which figure, judging from the position and form of the spots, I am compelled to believe is not quite correct, notwithstanding the excellence of the other illustrations. The ground-colour of the caterpillar is green; the subdorsal yellow, bordered with black, slightly curved, arched lines, which nowhere interrupt its continuity. This North American species appears therefore to be an older form than our Livornica.
Deilephila Zygophylli, Ochsenheimer
This species, which is the next allied form to D. Lineata, is an inhabitant of Southern Russia. I have seen four specimens of the caterpillar in Dr. Staudinger’s collection, three of which are certainly in the last ontogenetic stage. The ground-colour appears ash-grey, ash-brown, or blackish with whitish granulations. A broad white subdorsal line extends to the base of the black caudal horn, this line in one specimen appearing at first sight not to possess a trace of spot rudiments (Fig. 50). On closer investigation, however, there could be observed, in the same position where the ring-spots stand in the other species of Deilephila, small black crescents above and below the subdorsal line. In other specimens the white subdorsal line had also become expanded in these positions into distinct spots; indeed, in one individual light white mirror-spots, bordered above and below by black crescents, stood on the subdorsal line (Fig. 50 A).
It is thus in this distinguishing character that the caterpillar is extremely variable, and we may suppose either that this species is now in a state of transition to a higher stage of phyletic development, or else that the ring-spots were formerly more strongly developed, and are now degenerating. The developmental history of the larva could alone decide which of these two views is correct. There would be no difficulty in procuring materials for this purpose if one of the numerous and zealous Russian naturalists would take up the subject.
Deilephila Hippophaës, Esper
This is the only representative of the fifth and oldest group known to me. The moth resembles D. Euphorbiæ to the extent of being sometimes confounded with it, a circumstance which is made the more remarkable by the fact that the caterpillars are so completely different.
The adult larva of this local moth has been made known by the figures, more or less exact, in the works of Hübner, Boisduval, and Duponchel. Wilde also gives a description of it, although from a foreign source. I will not here delay myself by criticizing the different descriptions and figures; they are partly correct, partly inexact, and sometimes altogether erroneous; they were of no avail for the question which here primarily concerns us, and new observation had to be undertaken.
I have been able to compare altogether about forty caterpillars, thirty-five of which were living. All these specimens possessed nearly the same greyish-green ground-colour, and most of them had exactly the simple marking as represented, for instance, in Hübner’s figure, i. e., a rather broad greenish-white subdorsal line, somewhat faded at the edges, and without a trace of spots on any of the segments with the exception of the eleventh, on which there was a yellowish, black-bordered mirror-spot, with a broad, diffused, vivid orange-red nucleus. Specimens also occur, and by no means uncommonly, in which no other markings are to be seen than those mentioned; there were nine among twenty-eight examples compared from this point of view.
In many other individuals of this species small red spots appear on the subdorsal line, exactly in the positions where the ring-spots are situated in the other species of the genus (Fig. 60), so that these spots are thus repetitions of the single ring-spot – a fact which must appear of the greatest interest in connection with the development of the markings throughout the whole genus. But this is not all, for again in other specimens, these red spots stand on a large yellow “mirror,” and in one individual (Fig. 59), they had become developed into well-formed ring-spots through the addition of a black border. We have thus presented to us in one and the same stage of a species, the complete development of ring-spots from a subdorsal line.
These facts acquire a still greater interest, as showing how new elements of marking are produced. The spots on the subdorsal line decrease from the posterior to the anterior segments, so that they must undoubtedly be regarded as a repetition or transference of the ring-spot previously developed on the eleventh segment. I will now proceed to furnish proofs in support of this statement.
I have never met with any specimens having ring-spots on all the segments – in the most prominent instances these spots were present on segments 10–5. This was the case in three out of the twenty-eight caterpillars minutely examined. On all these segments, however, the ring-spots were not equally developed, but increased in perfection from the posterior towards the anterior segments. In the larva represented in Fig. 59 for example, there is a completely developed ring-spot on segment 10, which, although possessing but a feeble black “ground-area,” is still distinctly bordered; on segment 9 this border is less sharp, and not so dark, and it is still less sharp and much lighter on segments 8 and 7, whilst it has completely disappeared from segment 6, the yellow “mirror” having at the same time lost in size. On segment 5, only two small contiguous reddish spots, the first rudiments of the nucleus,94 can be recognized on close inspection.
Specimens in which the spots extend from the eleventh to the seventh segment are of more frequent occurrence, five having been found among the twenty-eight. In these the spots diminish anteriorly in size, perfection, and intensity of colour. Still more frequently (in eleven specimens) are the ring-spots or their rudiments restricted to the tenth and ninth segments, the spot on the latter being without exception less developed than that on the former segment.
An anteriorly progressing formation of ring-spots thus undoubtedly occurs, the spots generally diminishing in perfection very suddenly towards the front segments; and specimens, such as that represented in Fig. 60, Pl. VII., in which traces of ring-spots are to be seen on all the segments from the tenth to the fifth, are of rare occurrence.
From what elements of marking are these secondary ring-spots resulting from transference developed? They do not, as in the case of the primary eye-spots of the Chærocampinæ, originate in the separation of one portion of the subdorsal line, and the subsequent formation of this detached spot into a “mirror;” but they arise from the formation of a nucleus, first one and then two of the shagreen-dots on the subdorsal line acquiring a yellowish or reddish colour (Fig. 61, Pl. VII., segments 6 and 7). The ground on which these two spots are situated then becomes yellow (Fig. 61, Pl. VII., segment 8), and a more or less distinct black border, having the form of two small crescents, is afterwards formed. At a later period these two crescents and also the two primary nuclei coalesce, producing a ring-spot which, as in Fig. 61, Pl. VII., segment 9, can be distinctly resolved into two portions.
It certainly cannot be denied that these facts may also be theoretically interpreted in a reverse sense. We might interpret the phenomena in this case, as also in that of D. Zygophylli, as a gradual disappearance from the front towards the hind segments of ring-spots formerly present, a view which could only be refuted by the ontogeny of the species. I have not been fortunate enough to procure eggs of D. Hippophaës, so that the younger stages are unknown to me. Among my caterpillars, however, there were two in the fourth stage of development, but these did not show ring-spots on all the segments, as we should expect on the above view; on the contrary, no trace of such spots could be seen on any of the segments with the exception of the eleventh, on which there was a ring-spot less perfectly developed than in the last stage.
In this fourth stage the larva of D. Hippophaës is of a lighter green (Fig. 58), the subdorsal yellowish with sharp boundaries, and the infra-spiracular line pure white, as in the next stage. The shagreening is present, but none of the shagreen-dots are red or reddish, and no trace of a ring-spot can be detected on the subdorsal line with the exception of that on the eleventh segment. In this last position this line is somewhat widened, and a long, diffused, rose-red spot can there be recognized upon it (Fig. 58 A). The black “ground-area” present in the fifth stage is as yet absent, and the spot is not so sharply separated anteriorly from the subdorsal line as it becomes later.
From these observations we might venture to expect that in the third stage of Hippophaës, the subdorsal line would also be free from this spot on the eleventh segment, and it is possible that in the second stage this line is itself absent.
The Genus Deilephila: Summary of Facts and Conclusions
Regarding only the adult larvæ of the species of Deilephila, these represent in their five groups, five stages in the phyletic development of the genus; but if we also take into consideration the developmental history, two more stages must be added, viz., that in which the caterpillar possesses no particular marking, as was found to be the case in the first stage of the development of D. Euphorbiæ and D. Dahlii; and a second stage with a subdorsal line, but without any ring-spot formations. Seven stages of phyletic development must therefore be distinguished.
Stage 1.– No species with entire absence of marking in the adult form now occurs.
Stage 2.– A subdorsal, accompanied by a spiracular line, extends from the caudal horn to the first segment. This also no longer forms the final stage of the ontogeny, but is, however, undoubtedly retained in the second stage of several species (D. Vespertilio, Livornica, Lineata, and perhaps also Galii).
Stage 3.– The subdorsal line bears a ring-spot on the penultimate segment; the other markings as in the last stage. D. Hippophaës only belongs to this stage, a small number of specimens, however, showing a transition to the following stage by the transference of ring-spots from the posterior to the anterior segments.
Stage 4.– Open ring-spots appear on the subdorsal line on all the segments from the eleventh to the first. D. Zygophylli and the North American D. Lineata belong here.
Stage 5.– Closed ring-spots are situated on the subdorsal line. Of the known species, only D. Livornica concludes its development at this phyletic stage.
Stage 6.– A single row of ring-spots replaces the subdorsal line. D. Galii, Vespertilio, and Mauritanica represent this stage at the conclusion of their ontogeny.95
Stage 7.– A double row of ring-spots. Only D. Dahlii, Euphorbiæ, and Nicæa attain to this highest stage of Deilephila marking, the two first species in the fourth stage, and Nicæa in the third stage of its ontogeny.
Although our knowledge of the history of the development of the individual species is still so fragmentary, we may conclude with certainty that the development of the markings has been uniform throughout – that it has proceeded in the same manner in all species. All the species appear to be making for the same goal, and the question thus arises whether there may not be an innate force urging their phyletic development. The rigorous examination of this conception must be reserved for a later section. Here, as we are only occupied essentially in establishing facts, it must be remarked that retrogression has never been observed. The young larval forms of a species never show the markings of a later phyletic stage than the older larval forms; the development takes the same course in all species, only making a greater advance in the same direction in some than in others.
Thus, Nicæa and Euphorbiæ have advanced to the seventh phyletic stage, Zygophylli and Hippophaës only to the third, and some specimens of Zygophylli to the fourth. But at whatever phyletic stage the ontogeny of a species may terminate, the young larval stages always display the older phyletic stages. Thus, Galii in its last ontogenetic stage reaches the sixth phyletic stage; in its penultimate stage it reaches the fifth phyletic stage; and in its third stage; the fourth phyletic stage is represented, so that little imagination is required to anticipate that in the second stage the third or second phyletic stage would be pictured.
If we tabulate the development of the various species, indicating the ontogenetic stages by Arabic numerals, and the stages of the phylogeny which are reached in each stage of the ontogeny by Roman numerals, we obtain a useful synopsis of the series of developments, and, at the same time, it shows how many gaps still remain to be filled up in order to complete our knowledge even of this small group of species.
