Garibaldi Giuseppe
The Life of General Garibaldi
CHAPTER XXXI
I RETURN TO MONTEVIDEO, WITH THE FLOTILLA – ROSAS GAINS STRENGTH – THE ARMY OF CORRIENTES DESTROYED BY URQUIZA – RIVERA'S MISMANAGEMENT – THE INTERVENTION MISDIRECTED – FALL OF SALTO – DEFENCE AGAIN REDUCED TO MONTEVIDEO – HIGH DESERTS OF ITS DEFENDERS, NATIVES AND FOREIGNERS, NOT YET APPRECIATED – AN INTERVAL OCCURS, NOT MARKED BY IMPORTANT EVENTS – THE REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE
After the battle of the 20th of May, at Dayman, nothing important occurred in the campaign of Uruguay. I received orders from the government to return to Montevideo, with the vessels of the flotilla, and the detachment of the Italian Legion. A few of the smaller vessels remained at Salto, and the place was left under the command of Commandant Artigos, a brave officer, who distinguished himself in the battle on the 20th of May. A few days after my departure, Colonel Blanco arrived, and took command of the place at the orders of General Rivera.
In consequence of errors committed at Corrientes and Montevideo, the cause of Rosas gained strength very rapidly, and that of the people of the Plata sunk into a desperate condition. The army of Corrientes was destroyed by Urquiza in a battle; and that unfortunate people, after swimming in blood, languished under despotism. Rivera, not profiting by the lessons of misfortune, ended as he had begun, by removing from office men who had executed their duties with faithfulness, and substituting his partisans, destroying the materials of an army of operations, which the courage and constancy of the people had created and maintained with incorruptible heroism, and expatriating himself under the contempt and malediction of all. The English and French intervention was watched by intriguers and faithless men. The positions in the interior fell, one after another, into the power of the enemy. Salto, which had been so honorably acquired and maintained, was taken by assault by Sevando Gomez, and Colonel Gomez perished in the defence – an old and brave soldier – with a considerable number of men. At length the defence of the generous Oriental people was once more reduced to Montevideo; and there were collected all the men who had become bound together like brothers, by six years of danger, exploits and misfortunes. There they had again to erect an edifice, which had been destroyed by mismanagement, almost to its foundations.
Villagran, a veteran of forty years of war, a man of virtue, of the greatest bravery, and reïnvigorated by fighting; Diaz Bojes, shamefully banished by Rivera, because he would not serve him, but his country; and many other young officers, who have been dismissed by him, returned to their posts, with the conscience and the readiness of good men; and with them the resolute and the faithful returned to the files of the defenders.
Orientals, French and Italians marched to the succor of the country with alacrity; and not a word of discouragement was heard from any one. The siege of Montevideo, when better known in its details, will be counted among the noble defences of a people fighting for independence, for courage, constancy, and sacrifices of all kinds. It will prove the power of a nation resolved not to submit to the will of a tyrant; and, whatever their fate may be, they merit the applause and the commiseration of the world.
From the time of my return to Montevideo, to that of my departure for Italy, in 1848, a period intervened marked by no important event.
OUTLINES OF GENERAL GARIBALDI'S CAREER IN ITALY During the Years 1848 & '9;
CHIEFLY GIVEN IN OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS, COLLECTED AND TRANSLATED BY THEODORE DWIGHT
The translator of the preceding pages applied to General Garibaldi, while in New York, to write an account of the Roman Republic; and afterwards requested several of the most intelligent Italian exiles here to perform the task. They all declined, partly for the want of leisure, being all engaged in daily business for their own support. They, however, furnished valuable communications, some of which were embodied in "The Roman Republic of 1849." The following pages are chiefly occupied by official documents, which have been collected and translated for this work, in order to present an authentic documentary history of the great events in which General Garibaldi performed conspicuous parts, through the momentous struggle for liberty in Rome, in the year 1849.
GARIBALDI'S RETURN TO ITALY FROM SOUTH AMERICA, IN 1848
The following brief outline of General Garibaldi's movements, after the period terminating with the close of his "Autobiography," and previous to the first French attack on Rome, on the 30th of April, 1849, has been furnished for publication here by Dr. G. Gajani, now a citizen of New York, and then a member of the Roman Constituent Assembly, the author of that highly interesting and instructive work, "The Roman Exile."
In 1848, when the news of the Italian revolution reached Montevideo, General Garibaldi gathered his Italian friends and sailed for Italy. They had arrived in sight of Nice (the native city of Garibaldi), when Colonel Anzani, the most intimate friend of Garibaldi, breathed his last. Colonel Anzani was consumptive, and the emotion excited by seeing Italy again proved too powerful for him.
Garibaldi with his friends proceeded to the field of battle in Lombardy, and offered his services to King Charles Albert, who received him coolly. A few days after, the king was defeated, and signed an armistice with the Austrians. Garibaldi was not included in that armistice, and did not choose to lay down his arms. Pursued by the Austrians, he fought several skirmishes at Como, Varese, Laveno, and other places; but his troops, being overwhelmed by numbers, disbanded, and he retired into Switzerland – and, after much suffering, finally made good his retreat across the Po, into the Papal State, in October, 1848. General Zucchi, the Minister of War of the Pope, happened to be at Bologna, and wrote to Count Rossi, Secretary of State of Pius IX., that Zucchi had ordered two Swiss regiments (which were at the service of the Pope) to march against Garibaldi, who was then at Ravenna, and "throw him and his followers into the sea" – meaning, probably, to compel them to embark. But, before this order was executed, the Pope had fled from Rome, and the popular government which undertook to govern the State, enrolled Garibaldi and his followers, and gave him a commission to increase his band, and protect the eastern boundaries of the Roman State against the King of Naples.
A short time afterwards the elections for the Roman Constituent Assembly took place, and Garibaldi was elected at Macerata, and went to Rome to take his seat in the Assembly, at its opening, on February 9th, 1849.
After that day Garibaldi put himself again at the head of his troops, on the boundaries of Naples, and returned with them to Rome, when the French had landed at Civitavecchia.
PRINCIPLES OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICANS, IN OPPOSITIONTO THE CLAIMS OF POPERY
The Pope at this time published a long and tiresome "Encyclic" filled with true Popish arrogance and subtleties, to which pungent replies were made, – one entitled, "The Pope Excommunicated."
Brief extracts from "Thoughts addressed to the Archbishops and Bishops of Italy," "on the Encyclical Letter of Pope Pius IX.," by Mazzini.
The divorce between the world and him (Pius IX.), between believing people, who are the true Church, and the fornicating aristocracy who usurp its name, is impressed on every syllable of the Pope's letter. For many years the Pope has lost the power to love and bless. Excited for a moment by the immense spectacle of the resurrection of a people, Pius IX., two years ago, murmured a benediction upon Italy; and that accent of love sounded so new and unusual on the lips of a Pope, that all Europe imagined a second era for the Papacy, and became intoxicated with enthusiasm, ignorant of the history of past ages respecting him who had pronounced it. Now the monarchs have been paid…
The few important points which the Pope's letter contains, are:
1st, A theory on authority: and 2nd, A doctrine respecting the evils of the poverty and ignorance which afflict the people in Italy, and in a great degree elsewhere. Both these deny God, the Word of Christ, and human nature.
… The Israel (of Italy) is the revolutionary party, the national party, who say to Italians, You are not a race born to be slaves of the Pope, or of the Austrian whip; you are twenty-six millions of people, created free, equal, brethren, all children of God, and servants of nothing but his law.
The theory of the Pope's letter is this: "That the poor exist in consequence of things which cannot and ought not to be changed; that the Catholic religion preaches to the rich to have charity, which will obtain from God treasures of grace and eternal rewards; that the poor should thank the Providence which keeps them in misery, and that they know how to bear it in peace and a light mind, as an easier way of salvation in heaven."…
And to this theory is superadded the other, respecting authority: "Every authority comes from God; every government, de facto, is a government of right. Obey, or, resisting, be condemned."
In other words, or comprehending the two theories in one: Earth and heaven constitute a perpetual antagonism – Right, equality and truth reign in heaven; fact, force and inevitable evil reign upon earth. There are two human races: the race of the rich and powerful, and the race of the poor and servants. The poor exist for the benefit of the rich, in order that the latter may obtain heaven by exercising charity; and the servants, in order that the masters can govern with clemency and the spirit of love. When this is not done, God will give punishments and rewards in heaven; but, every attempt at melioration on earth, by the efforts of the poor and servile race, is sin.
And this is the religious doctrine which the church of the Pope teaches to mankind in the nineteenth century; and she teaches it in the name of the Gospel of Christ, confronting it to the words —
"Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven:"
the only prayer which Jesus taught to believers; confronting it to the command, "Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve;" confronting it to, "That all may be one, as thou, Father, art in me and I in thee."
No – it is not true that heaven and earth are in antagonism; it is not true, that, while in heaven the truth and justice of God reign, submission to fact and reverence for brute force are a law of the earth. It is not true that the salvation of human creatures is secured, as if by expiation, by means of resignation or indifference. The earth is the Lord's; the earth, on which, and for which, Jesus, first, and after him all the holy martyrs of mankind, shed their tears and their blood.
THE CONDITION OF ROME
The time approached when all eyes were to be opened to the real designs of the French. A crisis was near, when all the charitable hopes of the sincerity of their amicable professions were to be dispelled. The city was to be attacked by a foreign army for the first time since the days of Charles V., in the period of the Reformation, and for the second time since that of the Northern invasions. In looking back for preceding events of the same kind, the mind had but a single step more to make – the attempt by the Gauls. How different the state of the world since those times! How different the condition of the city; the mode and means of warfare; the principles engaged; the effect to be anticipated on the world!
Never before had the city of Rome been voluntarily deserted by a pope, and brought to a state of order and tranquility by a mere declaration of a republic, and become practically and truly a Protestant city. Never had she been, in the judgment of the world, more certain to be overawed by a powerful host, and more unable to resist. Deeply interesting must have been the situation of many a family.
The negotiations which had been carried on with the Triumvirate, by M. Lesseps, the French agent, had resulted in nothing but the manifest exposure of the double-dealing of Louis Napoleon, and a display of the integrity, ability and patriotism of the Romans.
There was a mixed multitude within the walls, but most of them belonging to the city, or other parts of the Roman States, and many of them soldiers who had been engaged in one or more battles in other parts of Italy. The whole number of Polanders and other foreigners was trifling. Volunteers had been hourly arriving for several weeks, some in regular corps, or companies, others in small bands, and some alone. Col. Manara had entered the city, at the head of his legion of Lombards, raised and paid out of his princely fortune, all which, with his services and his life, he gave an offering to his country.
The following extract from the Roman Monitore, the official journal, of June 28th, will give a specimen of the style, and the dignity and intelligence with which the people were daily addressed by the government. After denying, in such terms, and by such arguments as have been used in the preceding pages, the calumnious charges against the character and origin of the defenders of Rome, the Monitore enumerates the troops in the city, as follows: "The army of the Republic being ten regiments of infantry, and two of cavalry —all of them from the Roman States; the Medici Legion, of 300 Tuscans; the Foreign Legion, of 250 men, French and Poles; the Italian Legion of Garibaldi, about 2,000, all except 300 belonging to the Roman States; and, finally, several battalions of the Military Guard Mobile, some of Rome, some of the provinces… The pretended foreign banditti, then, who oppress the Roman people, amount to 1,650 men, in a city of 150,000 inhabitants, and with 14,000 National Guards. These are the men, too, who for a month have repelled 30,000 French troops, not only from the city, but from the country-seats around it, and defended a circuit of 40 miles! The most solemn denial that can be given to the accumulated falsehoods of our enemies, is to say to all the people of Europe, "Look, and judge! Assaulted by four armies at once, in the rushing ruin of Italian misfortunes, the Roman Republic raised her sacred standard on the towers of the Capitol, and guards the sacred fire of liberty."
Day broke on Rome, on the morning of April 30th, 1849, upon a scene which no human foresight could have anticipated, even a few weeks before, and which human ingenuity could scarcely have imagined, even in its principal features. The whole city was in solemn expectation of the arrival of a large French force, which was known to be on the march from Civita Vecchia, and near enough to arrive at the walls in a few hours. Arrangements had been made, and publicly announced, to apprise the inhabitants of their first appearance in sight, by the striking of bells. Preparations for defence had been made, and were still making, by the erecting of works in various places in the squares and streets, to oppose the French if they should enter the walls; while the troops were prepared to fight them from the walls and the ground outside. The elevated positions and buildings were crowded by spectators, some of them foreigners, of different classes, and from different countries. The French had pretended to come as friends and protectors, but persisted in advancing, even after being assured by the Romans that they neither needed nor desired their assistance. The French, then assuming a tone of disdain, had plainly expressed their belief that the Romans would not fight. The world was waiting, with anxiety, the result of that day's movements; and, probably, very few men believed that the French would meet with any great obstacle. They expected to dine that day in Rome, and to remain masters of it as long as they pleased.
Perhaps no news has ever been more unexpected, than that which was that day sent from Rome to all parts of the world: that the Romans had fought the French gallantly, with far inferior forces, for several hours, and driven them twelve miles back towards Civita Vecchia. Such, however, was the surprising truth; and, had not the Triumvirate peremptorily ordered Garibaldi to pursue them no further, he would have continued to press them, with the resolution which he had formed, of driving them into the sea.
Among the spectators who wrote accounts of what occurred that day, were several intelligent men of different nations, who described the defence as conducted with superior skill, and performed with the greatest vigor and valor by the Roman officers and soldiers. Interesting letters from some of these witnesses may be found in the newspapers of different countries, published soon after; and many concurrent accounts in various other publications, particularly "Italia del Popolo," a monthly magazine, published by the exiled patriot leaders. We give below the official reports of the principal events, during the period of Roman liberty, in all of which Garibaldi was a conspicuous actor.
OFFICIAL REPORT
OF THE REPULSE OF THE FRENCH ADVANCE OF 8,000 MEN UNDER GENERAL OUDINOT, UNDER THE WALLS OF ROME – THE FIRST BATTLE: APRIL 30TH, 1849
(Translated for the present work.)
Arrangements of the Battle of the 30th of April
The Triumvirate, with information furnished by the Minister of War, Citizen General Avezzana, publishes the following report:
The time necessary to collect, from the different military chiefs, the particulars relative to the engagement of April 30th, has prevented us from publishing earlier a precise relation. Now, since such particulars have been minutely transmitted, we fulfil that duty with such scrupulous exactness, as is demanded by the truth of history and the just desires of the public.
From the 29th, the commander in chief of the arms of the Republic, General Avezzana, who is also the Minister of War, was fully informed of the enemy's approach by the numerous scouting parties, whose reports were confirmed by a French prisoner, who, the same day, fell into an ambush of our advance-posts.
On the morning of the 30th, the telegraph giving notice of the advance of the enemy's forces, announced at nine o'clock, that they were within five miles of Rome; and the Minister of War sent a captain of the general staff to the cupola of St. Peter's, to remain there until the firing should commence, to observe all the movements of the enemy, and discover their numbers and their intentions.
In the meantime all measures were taken in the city to repel the aggression, with such desperate energy as is inspired by the holiness of right and the justice of the cause. Strong and numerous barricades, at all the gates and in all the principal streets, especially on the right side of the Tiber, forbade all access into the city; the bastions, rising above, crowned with cannon, were prepared to fire upon the enemy; and the young army, impatient with warlike ardor, placed at the different points where the attack was expected, was disposed in the following order: The first brigade, commanded by General Garibaldi, and composed of the first Italian Legion, the battalion of the University, the battalion of the Reduced, the Legion of Exiles, and the Mobilized Finanzieri, occupied, outside of the walls, the whole line from the Portese Gate to the gate of San Pancrazio; the second brigade, composed of two battalions of the Mobilized Civic Troops and the First Light, commanded by Col. Masi, occupied the wall of the Gates Cavalleggieri, Vatican and Angelica; and finally, the third brigade, commanded by Col. Savini, and composed of the first and second regiments of Mounted Dragoons, formed the reserve in Piazza Navona. The fourth brigade, consisting of the first and second regiments of the line, commanded by Colonel Galletti, was in reserve at the Chiesa Nuova and Piazza Cesarini, with all the field cannon not in position. General Giuseppe Galletti, commander of Carabiniers, and Major Manara, with the Lombard battalion, forming separate corps, were held ready to proceed wherever necessity might require.
Everything concurred to indicate that the enemy, who were eight thousand men, with two squadrons of cavalry and twelve field-pieces, divided in two columns, intended to make a double and simultaneous attack at the gates Cavalleggieri and Angelica. In fact, about eleven o'clock in the morning, proceeding by Villa Pamfili, they occupied two houses, from which they commenced an active fire of musketry and artillery against the Cavalleggieri gate. The valiant General Garibaldi moved from the gate of San Pancrazio, to attack them in flank, with all his troops and the University battalion; and there commenced a murderous and obstinate battle, in which a hundred deeds of personal bravery proved, that the modern Italians are prepared to imitate the ancient glories of their fathers. The French made a determined resistance to the onset of Garibaldi; and even repulsed their assailants, favored by their superior numbers and by their artillery, which they fired briskly. But, being reinforced by the Legion of Exiles, the Reduced battalion, the Roman Legion, commanded by Col. Galletti, and two companies of the first regiment of the line, charging simultaneously, with the bayonet, they compelled the enemy to retire precipitately, leaving in the hands of our troops about three hundred prisoners, among whom were six officers, with the commander of a battalion, and a great number of killed.
While they were fighting thus at San Pancrazio, other attacks were made on the gardens of the Vatican, and along the entire line, from the Cavalleggieri gate to that of Santa Marta, where the enemy endeavored, with all their power, to silence our artillery, and where they made two furious assaults, but were bravely repulsed by the Masi Brigade and the Mobilized Civic, assisted in good time by the brave and ardent Carabiniers. At all those points our troops sustained the attacks of the enemy with admirable firmness and coolness, and, by fighting with the bravery of veteran soldiers, compelled them to make a precipitate retreat. In that encounter the National Artillery deserve special commemoration, under the command of Colonel Calandrelli, who lost two distinguished officers, besides wounded; and also the Civic Artillery, who rivalled the former in zeal and ardor.
Thus repulsed on the whole line, the French retired first to Bravella, three miles from the city, whence, after a short stop, they continued their retreat towards Castel di Guido, from which, doubtless, they will go to Civitavecchia.
This battle, which wonderfully consolidated the foundation of our Republic, lasted about seven hours, beginning at ten in the morning and ending at three in the afternoon, without including, as a part of the contest, the little skirmishes which were continued until evening, between our ardent soldiers and the bands of the enemy who were pursued without ceasing. According to facts collected, and the statements made by the prisoners, it appears that the enemy lost more than fifteen hundred men, including killed, wounded and prisoners. On our part we have to lament only fifty killed and two hundred wounded, among whom are many officers, subaltern and superior.
We have only a sentiment of admiration and a word of praise, equal for all, officers, soldiers and people, who took part in the combat of the 30th. All fought like heroes; all showed that when the love of country is living and ardent, the sacrifice of life is sweet. In such a case we cannot make a better eulogium on the valor of our brave men, than by repeating an extract of a letter written by General Garibaldi to the Minister of War:
"All the corps which have fought this day are extremely well-deserving of the country. A detachment of the line, the first Roman Legion, the University battalion, the Arcioni Legion, the battalion of the Reduced, and the first Italian Legion have been rivals in valor. The chief officers and the soldiers of those corps have merited the gratitude of Italy and the title of valiant men. Many arms, drums and other articles of war have remained in our power."
The merits of the sanitary officers of our ambulances ought not to be forgotten, who were diligent in collecting on the field, the wounded, on whom were lavished, as is done in the hospitals, by the ladies, services truly fraternal; and in mourning over losses, it is grateful to say, that among the French themselves, many declared, before dying, that they left life with remorse for having fought against brother-republicans; while those who were saved, imprecating their government, know not how to thank us for the assiduous cares of which they have been the objects, but by repeating as often as their countrymen are made prisoners, 'Viva la Republica Romana!'
In short, a profound sentiment of gratitude requires us to give to that most truly Italian General, Avezzana, a word of encomium, though far inferior to that great love of country which impels him to provide for every exigency of the onerous ministry entrusted to him, with a tenacious perseverance, and an indefatigable alacrity, which would have been prodigious in a young man. From the first approach of the enemy, followed by a portion of his staff, (for many other officers belonging to it were appointed to the gates, to direct the corps which defended them,) General Avezzana visited in succession the places attacked, and by his voice and his example, raising to the highest degree the enthusiasm of the people, until they asked for arms, and with the soldiers who were fighting bravely, secured the triumph of the day and the honor of the country.
In this aggression, France, sacrificed by a government, the enemy of the true interests of their country, has suffered immense losses, more moral than material; she has lost all political influence; she has no right to our sympathies; and if the justice of our cause has given so much energy to conquer the most warlike soldier, we have now the profound conviction of being able to contest, with glory and success, against all the enemies of the Republic and of Italy.
The Triumvirs,
CARLO ARMELLINI,GIUSEPPE MAZZINI,AURELIO SAFFI.
FROM AN ACCOUNT OF THE SAME BATTLE OF APRIL 30TH,
BY CARLO RUSCONI
General Oudinot, who, with 8,000 men and 12 field pieces, wished to raze Rome to the ground, ordered a simultaneous attack on Porta Cavalleggieri and Porta Angelica, and occupied two houses of Villa Pamfili, from which he opened an active fire of musketry and artillery. He presented himself against General Garibaldi, one of those men who serve as types in the creations of art. Beautiful in person, simple in habits, frugal in living, courageous as the heroes celebrated in chivalry, he exerted a fascination on all who surrounded him. He had a thousand men about him, who would have allowed themselves to be killed a thousand times at his slightest command. Concise in manner, sparing of words, terrible in wrath, you would have said that Byron must have had this extraordinary man before his eyes, when he delineated his immortal Conrad; – Garibaldi, who was not in his element except when balls were whistling round his head, moved against the French, attacked them in flank, and, supported by Col. Galleti, discomfited them, after many hours fighting.
Garibaldi, having seen that the engagement with musketry proceeded too slowly, and impatient at that mode of fighting, made a charge on the French with the bayonet, in the most destructive manner, and which secured him the victory. Finding that that method turned out well, he never abandoned it in the successive conflicts; and this explains the great number of killed in that obstinate war.
SPIRITED PROCLAMATION TO THE PEOPLE OF ROME, BY THEIR
REPRESENTATIVES, THE DAY AFTER THE FIRST BATTLE
People! yesterday commenced the entrance of the French into Rome. They entered by the Porta San Pancrazio – as prisoners! To us, people of Rome, this does not cause much surprise; but it may excite a curious sensation in Paris. That also will be well.
People! the attack will be renewed. Let us do as we did yesterday; and especially do not be alarmed if a few batteries should be silenced by their cannonade. Reports of cannon startle the ears, and somewhat shake the houses: but, in fact, when they do not reach united masses of people, they destroy but very few victims…
We request good shopkeepers to keep at their business constantly: that will have a good influence and be very convenient at the same time.
To-day we have need to fortify Pincio, (the Pincian Mount;) be there early, in goodly numbers, and let us labor together.
PROCLAMATION BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE BARRICADES,
TWO DAYS AFTER THE FIRST BATTLE
People! General Oudinot promised to pay all and all in cash. Well, let him pay, if he can, for the Tapestries of Raffaele, shot through with French bullets; let him pay for the losses – no, not the losses, but the insult cast on Michael Angelo. Napoleon at least carried to Paris our master-pieces, and in a certain way Italian genius received the admiration of the foreigner, as a recompense for the conquest. Not so to-day. The French government invade our territory, and carry their singular predilection for Rome so far, as to wish to destroy her, rather than have her exposed to the impatience of the terrible (General) Zucchi, and the threats of Radetzky and Gioberti, who are both at several weeks' distance from the Tiber. General Oudinot is more hasty than our enemies. The Republic is grateful to him. Do you know why? Because, while the Imperialists occupy Alessandria, without a blow struck by Charles Albert, it is a great Italian glory, that the People's Rome honorably repels the Republicans of France, whom a black government sends against us, after calumniating us as robbers and assassins. And the Popes? Let us preserve, in memory of them, the cannon-balls which solemnly celebrated the anniversary of the Pontifical Encyclic. Enough! Of kingdoms and triple kings let us talk no more. Let us now think of the Barricades. Let us think of our honor, which we must fully vindicate. Rome, like Scævola, has still her arm on the burning torch, and has sworn an oath. The three hundred of Scævola routed Porsenna. The history of Rome is not yet finished.
