Baidu:     
 


 Baidu,   Google         - .          ,        -     Baidu                  .

     ,      ,    ,     ,     -  .





 

Baidu:     



ShinJoung Yeo

Baidu: Geopolitical Dynamics of the Internet in China



 2023 ShinJoung Yeo

All Rights Reserved

Authorised translation from the English language edition published by Routledge, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group LLC.

   , 2026


* * *


 










       .        ,         .                .      ,  ,       .     ,           ,       .         ,      ,         .    .,     ,      ,            .  ,         ,    ,     ,       .     ,      (     ??).








  2020 ,      ,        Baidu,   Alibaba  Tencent    -      .        .                  .        .   Financial Times,           ,      -           .[1 - Demetri Sevastopulo, James Fontanella-Khan and Eric Platt, Alibaba, Tencent and Baidu spared from US investor blacklist, Financial Times, January 31, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/46505ee0-fb3d-4cf0-a3df-64e9661e839f.]                2022 ,       261       1,3  .[2 - U.S-China Economic and Security Review Commission, Chinese Companies Listed on Major U.?S. Stock Exchanges. March 31, 2022, https://www.uscc.gov/research/chinese-companies-listed-major-us-stock-exchanges.]               ,  ,   ,    -    ,     -. Baidu, Alibaba  Tencent (BAT)    ,   ,          ,     ,      .

      Baidu,   ,     -       .  ,   Baidu,       Google,           .  ,      ,      ,   ,     .

   Google,    ,    .       Baidu   80%   -.[3 - Lai Lin Thomala, Market share of search engines in China as of December 2021, based on pageview, Statista, January 14, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/253340/market-share-of-search-engines-in-china-pageviews/.]          Google      ,      Google      .  ,       -  ,       -.                    .

Baidu     - .     2000-,                 -        .[4 - Min Tang, Tencent: The Political Economy of Chinas Surging Internet Giant (New York: Routledge, 2019), 930.]     Baidu     ,    , .  ,  Baidu ,    -      ,  .      Baidu     -.          ,    - ,          ,             .

   Baidu    - ,         .  ,      ,           ,     .[5 - Ellen Meiksins Wood, Unhappy family, Monthly Review, June 1, 1999, https://monthlyreview.org/1999/07/01/unhappy-families/.]             ;        .         .            ,      ,        .[6 - Ibid.]                         .    ,         ,    ,       .[7 - David Harvey, The coercive laws of competition, Anti-Capitalist Chronicles, November 18, 2021, https://anticapitalistchronicles.libsyn.com/the-coercive-laws-of-competition.]                . ,          ,      ,      ,      Baidu         .




 


                     ,            1972   ,  .[8 - Margaret MacMillan, Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2008).]                  .  2012      ,       ,  ,       ,    -    .[9 - Vijay Prashad and Jie Xiong, Why Xinjiang is central to US cold war on China, Asia Times, April 17, 2021, https://asiatimes.com/2021/04/why-xinjiang-is-central-to-us-cold-war-on-china/.]           - ,        .  ,      -                        .

                ;            ,      .          ,        ,  .           ,          :   5G,     .[10 - Anu Bradford and Raluca Csernatoni, Toward a strengthened transatlantic technology alliance, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,* January 26, 2021, https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/01/26/toward-strengthened-transatlantic-technology-alliance-pub-83565.* Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (    )       ,        .]        AUKUS  -      .               .          ,         12    ,           .[11 - Steven Erlanger, The sharp U.?S.?Pivot to Asia is throwing Europe off balance, New York Times, September 17, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/europe/biden-china-europe-submarine-deal.html.]   2022        ,            .

           (NSCAI),    Google  ,   2021   700-         .           ,        ,     .         ,         .[12 - Final Report National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence (March 19, 2021), https://www.nscai.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Full-Report-Digital-1.pdf.]       14017           , ,     ,             .[13 - Joseph Biden, Executive Order on Americas Supply Chains (E.O. 14017), February 24, 2021, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/03/01/202104 280/americas-supply-chains.]            ,  , ,        .  ,  2022          (CHIPS and Science Act)   280 .[14 -       : America COMPETES Act           .         H.R. 4346,          2022 . .: U.?S.?Congress, House, Supreme Court Security Funding Act of 2022, H.R. 4346, 117th Cong., 1st sess. Introduced in House July 1, 2021, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/4346/text.]                 52 ,            .[15 - White House, FACT SHEET: CHIPS and Science Act Will Lower Costs Create Jobs Strengthen Supply Chains and Counter China, August 9, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/.]   ,  ,    ,         .

    ,        ,       ,          ,       .[16 - Vijay Prashad and Jie Xiong, Why Xinjiang is central to US cold war on China, Asia Times, April 17, 2021, https://asiatimes.com/2021/04/why-xinjiang-is-central-to-us-cold-war-on-china/.]       :        - .[17 - Keikichi Takahashi, How unique is Trumps China policy? The Diplomat, June 17, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/how-unique-is-trumps-china-policy/.]     ,         ,         ,     .[18 - Brett Wilkins, Noam Chomsky warns of very dangerous US antagonism of China, Canadian Dimension, December 1, 2021, https://canadiandimension.com/articles/view/noam-chomsky-warns-of-very-dangerous-us-antagonism-of-china.]

 ,                     ,    ()       .           ,                 .                 .       2008        ,     ,    ,  586    .    ,  13,3%    2008 ,    .[19 - WayneM.?Morrison, China and the global financial crisis: Implications for the United States, Congressional Research Service, June 3, 2009, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/RS22984.pdf.]   ,       ,   ,          .        ,  -       ,   :  16%     ,        .[20 - James Andrew Lewis, Chinas pursuit of semiconductor independence, Center for Strategic & International Studies, February 27, 2019, https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-pursuit-semiconductor-independence.]

   ,                  .[21 - Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Outline of the National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy, trans. Etcetera Language Group, Inc. (Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 2019), https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/outline-of-the-national-innovation-driven-development-strategy/.]     13-   (20152020),           .      ,  ,  ,  , , , , ,     ,        .[22 - Katherine Koleski, The 13th Five-Year Plan, U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, February 14, 2017, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/The%2013th%20Five-Year%20Plan_Final_2.14.17_Updated%20(002). pdf.]        ,   ,    2025 (2015),         (2017)    (2019),           .   13-       .[23 - Dennis Normile, China again boosts R&D spending by more than 10%, Science, August 28, 2020, https://www.science.org/content/article/china-again-boosts-rd-spending-more-10.]  2018      468 ,      582 ,   .[24 - Ibid.]

 13-     ,  -        .        , 14-    20212025 . ,     ,  14-         .     ,       ,            .[25 - Outline of the Peoples Republic of China 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives for 2035, trans, Xinhua News Agency, March 12, 2021, https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/t0284_14th_Five_Year_Plan_EN.pdf.]   14- ,    10-          2021                      .[26 - Phillip Inman, Chinese president vows to adjust excessive incomes of super rich, Guardian, August 18, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/18/chinese-president-xi-jinping-vows-to-adjust-excessive-incomes-of-super-rich.]  14-           ,          .

     ,    :  2012    7,85%,   2018-   7%.[27 - C.Textor, Growth rate of real gross domestic product (GDP) in China from 2011 to 2021 with forecasts until 2026, Statista, February 16, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/263616/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-china/.]  2020       -       2,2%         40 .[28 - Stella Qiu and Kevin Yao, China sets low bar for GDP growth, pledges more jobs, Reuters, March 4, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-gdp/china-sets-low-bar-for-gdp-growth-pledges-more-jobs-idUSKBN2AX03L.]  ,          800 ,         ,       .  1%      ,    50%,[29 - Sharon Chen, China has a huge wealth-gap problem  and its getting worse, Bloomberg, December 24, 2020, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/storythreads/202012-24/china-has-a-huge-wealth-gap-problem-and-it-s-getting-worse.]            57%.[30 - Shin Watanabe, Chinas income inequality grows despite village modernization, Nikkei Asia, June 13, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-s-income-inequality-grows-despite-village-modernization.] - 600   154     ,[31 - Ryan Hass, Assessing Chinas common prosperity campaign, Brookings, September 9, 2021, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/09/09/assessing-chinas-common-prosperity-campaign/.]    2020       .[32 - James Kynge Xi Jinping takes aim at the gross inequalities of Chinas gilded age Financial Times August 20, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/8761f6115619-4c2d-8627577ba9359cd4.]           ,  14-  , ,    ,        ,  ,     .

     14-                 ( ),       ,            ( ).[33 - Ibid.]          ,      1,4         .       ,   5G, ,  , ,     ,       .[34 - U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Chinas 14th Five-Year Plan: A First Look, by KarenM.?Sutter, Specialist and MichaelD.?Sutherlan, IF11684 (2021), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11684.]

         ,      -   ,    - .                 .[35 - Matt Sheehan, China Technology 2025: Fragile Tech Superpower, Marco Polo, October 26, 2020, https://macropolo.org/analysis/china-technology-forecast-2025-fragile-tech-superpower/.]    ,      ,   Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba  ,    , -   ,  ,     .

               .           ,         .          .    ,                 .[36 - Angela Huyue Zhang, Chinese Antitrust Exceptionalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021).]         ,      - ,        .[37 - Kai von Carnap and Valarie Tan, Tech regulation in China brings in sweeping changes, Merics, Novem- ber 3, 2021, https://merics.org/en/short-analysis/tech-regulation-china-brings-sweeping-changes.]       2021       ,              .[38 - Xi Eyes Innovation, Oversight to Grow Chinas Digital Economy, Bloomberg News, October 19, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/202110-19/china-s-xi-vows-tighter-oversight-of-tech-firms-digital-economy.]        , -  , ,                   .[39 - Orange Wang, Chinas Xi Jinping, Liu He move to reassure private sector as Beijings Big Tech crackdown rattles entrepreneurs, South Morning China, September 6, 2021, https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3147764/chinas-xi-jinping-liu-he-move-reassure-private-sector.]   ,          ;         ,  ,             .[40 - Chinas Liu He assures business of support, amid regulatory crackdown, Reuters, September 6, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-liu-he-says-support-private-business-has-not-changed-202109-06/.]

    , , ,            .                   , ,     .[41 - Daniel Slotta, Announced donations to combat coronavirus from tech giants in China 2020, Statista, February 21, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1106335/china-covid-19-tech-companies/; Daniel Tam-Claiborne, Chinese tech philanthropy in the age of common prosperity, SupChina, November 23, 2021, https://supchina.com/2021/11/23/chinese-tech-philanthropy-in-the-age-of-common-prosperity/.]           ,    ,  ,   ,   .      ,         ,         .  - ,       Baidu.




   


                -             .      ,        .  ,        .    ,       ,               .[42 - Yuezhi Zhao, Communication in China: Political Economy, Power, and Conflict (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 138148.]

   ,             .[43 - Yu Hong, Networking China: The Digital Transformation of the Chinese Economy (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2017).]  ,            ,   ,    ,              .                ,          .  ,         ,  ,       ,    ,     ,          .

          - ,   ,           .[44 - Min Tang, From bring-in to going out: Transnationalizing Chinas Internet Capital through State Policies, Chinese Journal of Communication, 13, no. 1 (2019): 2747.]  ,      ,                  .  1990-, -   ,  IT-     .           ,  -     . -     Tencent ,          ,          -.[45 - Min Tang, Tencent: The Political Economy of Chinas Surging Internet Giant (London: Routledge, 2019).]            .                          .         ,      .[46 - Min Tang, Not Yet the End of Transnational Digital Capitalism: A Communication Perspective of the U.S. China Decoupling Rhetoric, International Journal of Communication, 16 (2021): 15061531.]

       -    ,       ,           ,   .[47 - Lianrui Jia, Going Public and Going Global: Chinese Internet Companies and Global Finance Networks, Westminster Paper in Communication and Culture, 13, no. 1 (2018): 1736.]            ,            ,    .   ,        ,   ,             -     .[48 - Shen Hong, Across the Great (Fire) Wall: China and the Global Internet (PhD.Diss., University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, 2017).]          ,     :      ,       ,      .       Baidu.     ,       Baidu,     ,            -.




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   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_book/?art=73743868)  .

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notes








1


Demetri Sevastopulo, James Fontanella-Khan and Eric Platt, Alibaba, Tencent and Baidu spared from US investor blacklist, Financial Times, January 31, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/46505ee0-fb3d-4cf0-a3df-64e9661e839f.




2


U.S-China Economic and Security Review Commission, Chinese Companies Listed on Major U.?S. Stock Exchanges. March 31, 2022, https://www.uscc.gov/research/chinese-companies-listed-major-us-stock-exchanges.




3


Lai Lin Thomala, Market share of search engines in China as of December 2021, based on pageview, Statista, January 14, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/253340/market-share-of-search-engines-in-china-pageviews/.




4


Min Tang, Tencent: The Political Economy of Chinas Surging Internet Giant (New York: Routledge, 2019), 930.




5


Ellen Meiksins Wood, Unhappy family, Monthly Review, June 1, 1999, https://monthlyreview.org/1999/07/01/unhappy-families/.




6


Ibid.




7


David Harvey, The coercive laws of competition, Anti-Capitalist Chronicles, November 18, 2021, https://anticapitalistchronicles.libsyn.com/the-coercive-laws-of-competition.




8


Margaret MacMillan, Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2008).




9


Vijay Prashad and Jie Xiong, Why Xinjiang is central to US cold war on China, Asia Times, April 17, 2021, https://asiatimes.com/2021/04/why-xinjiang-is-central-to-us-cold-war-on-china/.




10


Anu Bradford and Raluca Csernatoni, Toward a strengthened transatlantic technology alliance, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,* January 26, 2021, https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/01/26/toward-strengthened-transatlantic-technology-alliance-pub-83565.

* Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (    )       ,        .




11


Steven Erlanger, The sharp U.?S.?Pivot to Asia is throwing Europe off balance, New York Times, September 17, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/europe/biden-china-europe-submarine-deal.html.




12


Final Report National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence (March 19, 2021), https://www.nscai.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Full-Report-Digital-1.pdf.




13


Joseph Biden, Executive Order on Americas Supply Chains (E.O. 14017), February 24, 2021, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/03/01/202104 280/americas-supply-chains.




14


      : America COMPETES Act           .         H.R. 4346,          2022 . .: U.?S.?Congress, House, Supreme Court Security Funding Act of 2022, H.R. 4346, 117th Cong., 1st sess. Introduced in House July 1, 2021, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/4346/text.




15


White House, FACT SHEET: CHIPS and Science Act Will Lower Costs Create Jobs Strengthen Supply Chains and Counter China, August 9, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/.




16


Vijay Prashad and Jie Xiong, Why Xinjiang is central to US cold war on China, Asia Times, April 17, 2021, https://asiatimes.com/2021/04/why-xinjiang-is-central-to-us-cold-war-on-china/.




17


Keikichi Takahashi, How unique is Trumps China policy? The Diplomat, June 17, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/how-unique-is-trumps-china-policy/.




18


Brett Wilkins, Noam Chomsky warns of very dangerous US antagonism of China, Canadian Dimension, December 1, 2021, https://canadiandimension.com/articles/view/noam-chomsky-warns-of-very-dangerous-us-antagonism-of-china.




19


WayneM.?Morrison, China and the global financial crisis: Implications for the United States, Congressional Research Service, June 3, 2009, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/RS22984.pdf.




20


James Andrew Lewis, Chinas pursuit of semiconductor independence, Center for Strategic & International Studies, February 27, 2019, https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-pursuit-semiconductor-independence.




21


Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Outline of the National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy, trans. Etcetera Language Group, Inc. (Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 2019), https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/outline-of-the-national-innovation-driven-development-strategy/.




22


Katherine Koleski, The 13th Five-Year Plan, U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, February 14, 2017, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/The%2013th%20Five-Year%20Plan_Final_2.14.17_Updated%20(002). pdf.




23


Dennis Normile, China again boosts R&D spending by more than 10%, Science, August 28, 2020, https://www.science.org/content/article/china-again-boosts-rd-spending-more-10.




24


Ibid.




25


Outline of the Peoples Republic of China 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives for 2035, trans, Xinhua News Agency, March 12, 2021, https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/t0284_14th_Five_Year_Plan_EN.pdf.




26


Phillip Inman, Chinese president vows to adjust excessive incomes of super rich, Guardian, August 18, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/18/chinese-president-xi-jinping-vows-to-adjust-excessive-incomes-of-super-rich.




27


C.Textor, Growth rate of real gross domestic product (GDP) in China from 2011 to 2021 with forecasts until 2026, Statista, February 16, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/263616/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-china/.




28


Stella Qiu and Kevin Yao, China sets low bar for GDP growth, pledges more jobs, Reuters, March 4, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-gdp/china-sets-low-bar-for-gdp-growth-pledges-more-jobs-idUSKBN2AX03L.




29


Sharon Chen, China has a huge wealth-gap problem  and its getting worse, Bloomberg, December 24, 2020, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/storythreads/202012-24/china-has-a-huge-wealth-gap-problem-and-it-s-getting-worse.




30


Shin Watanabe, Chinas income inequality grows despite village modernization, Nikkei Asia, June 13, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-s-income-inequality-grows-despite-village-modernization.




31


Ryan Hass, Assessing Chinas common prosperity campaign, Brookings, September 9, 2021, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/09/09/assessing-chinas-common-prosperity-campaign/.




32


James Kynge Xi Jinping takes aim at the gross inequalities of Chinas gilded age Financial Times August 20, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/8761f6115619-4c2d-8627577ba9359cd4.




33


Ibid.




34


U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Chinas 14th Five-Year Plan: A First Look, by KarenM.?Sutter, Specialist and MichaelD.?Sutherlan, IF11684 (2021), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11684.




35


Matt Sheehan, China Technology 2025: Fragile Tech Superpower, Marco Polo, October 26, 2020, https://macropolo.org/analysis/china-technology-forecast-2025-fragile-tech-superpower/.




36


Angela Huyue Zhang, Chinese Antitrust Exceptionalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021).




37


Kai von Carnap and Valarie Tan, Tech regulation in China brings in sweeping changes, Merics, Novem- ber 3, 2021, https://merics.org/en/short-analysis/tech-regulation-china-brings-sweeping-changes.




38


Xi Eyes Innovation, Oversight to Grow Chinas Digital Economy, Bloomberg News, October 19, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/202110-19/china-s-xi-vows-tighter-oversight-of-tech-firms-digital-economy.




39


Orange Wang, Chinas Xi Jinping, Liu He move to reassure private sector as Beijings Big Tech crackdown rattles entrepreneurs, South Morning China, September 6, 2021, https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3147764/chinas-xi-jinping-liu-he-move-reassure-private-sector.




40


Chinas Liu He assures business of support, amid regulatory crackdown, Reuters, September 6, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-liu-he-says-support-private-business-has-not-changed-202109-06/.




41


Daniel Slotta, Announced donations to combat coronavirus from tech giants in China 2020, Statista, February 21, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1106335/china-covid-19-tech-companies/; Daniel Tam-Claiborne, Chinese tech philanthropy in the age of common prosperity, SupChina, November 23, 2021, https://supchina.com/2021/11/23/chinese-tech-philanthropy-in-the-age-of-common-prosperity/.




42


Yuezhi Zhao, Communication in China: Political Economy, Power, and Conflict (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 138148.




43


Yu Hong, Networking China: The Digital Transformation of the Chinese Economy (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2017).




44


Min Tang, From bring-in to going out: Transnationalizing Chinas Internet Capital through State Policies, Chinese Journal of Communication, 13, no. 1 (2019): 2747.




45


Min Tang, Tencent: The Political Economy of Chinas Surging Internet Giant (London: Routledge, 2019).




46


Min Tang, Not Yet the End of Transnational Digital Capitalism: A Communication Perspective of the U.S. China Decoupling Rhetoric, International Journal of Communication, 16 (2021): 15061531.




47


Lianrui Jia, Going Public and Going Global: Chinese Internet Companies and Global Finance Networks, Westminster Paper in Communication and Culture, 13, no. 1 (2018): 1736.




48


Shen Hong, Across the Great (Fire) Wall: China and the Global Internet (PhD.Diss., University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, 2017).


