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      1917 ,  ,     .    ,    ,           .   1936  ,         ,      ,          .    ,        .    ,  ,               ,   ,       .

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Wendy Z. Goldman

Women, The State And Revolution Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 19171936


* * *

 Cambridge University Press 1993

This translation of Women, the State and Revolution is published by arrangement with Cambridge University Press

      , 2025

    ,   , 2025




      

    

      1917 


1917.    ,         ,  ,   .       ,          ,       .          ,    ,       ,  -     ,     ,    . ,     35 [1 -   (    )               4  1917 .],            ,         ,     .

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  :      ,         .    ,   ,    [] ,   ,   .. ,          ,      [2 -  ..     (   ) //  . 1927. 89 (6768). .67.].  , ,       .     ,  ,            [3 - - ,      . -    -  (),       .  :  . . .], ,    ,                .        ,             (   ,  -  ),          .

              .     .           ,   .    ,      ,          ,       ,   :   ,      :    (  ).  , .       ,     .     , [4 -  ..  ..  // . . . . 49. .: , 1970. .444.].

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,     ,        ,     ,  .       ,            :  ,   .           ,      ,   .         .           1918 .    ,   ,       ,    1917 .     .     (    1905  1917 ), ,   ;      ,    [7 -  ..  // . . . . 33. .: , 1969. .120.].

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          1917       ,     .      1917            ,           .           ,     ,      .      ,       :       .

    ,          .     ,                  - .   . ,   .   ,     (1884)  .     (1879)[10 -  .  -  :     . .:   , 2024. .369.].  ,      ,   ,  ,   (,     )     ,  ,     ,       .           (  ).    Die Frauenfrage (  :  ,       , 1904)     [11 -  .  .      . .: - .. , 1902. 433 .].

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 ,         1840- ,       .. -     ().         La Phalange,    ,      .        ,           [13 -  .H. .   .  //  . 1909. 11. .161162.],       .        ..        -[14 -  ..  . .:  , 1988. .369.],       :     ,       ,       [15 -  .. :  . .: , 1991. .443.].

        ..   ?,     (   )[16 -  ..  ? // . . . . 11. .:  , 1939. .589590.]   [17 -      ,         16001800 ,     .] .  ,   ,   1890 :           .          .        .      .       ,       .    ,           .       .            [18 -  .. ..  // . .5. .: , [1925]. .118.].

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           ,        ,     .   ,  ,      , :  ,      ,    [20 -  .. . . .128.].

    ,      .        .    ,  ,     [21 -  ..   . .1. .: , 1969. .232.].  ?    .    ,             1887 ,    ,     .     ,   ,      ,    .    ?   ,      :  ,      ,  []    [22 -        ? / . . .  //  . 1957. 8. .128129.].    ,  , :       ,  ,  ,    ,     , ,    .    ,  , .   ' ?'      ,          ,  퓻[23 -  .    //     . .1. .: , 1956. .292.].

            . ,     -,       .   ,      ,        :     ,    - ,     [24 -  ..     :     //       19961998. ., 1999. .910.].          -,      :  ,  ,  -,  ,    .            - ,     . ,    1918          ,    ()  29  1918                 . ,     -     .        ,     ,  .      ,     [25 -  ..   . .:  , 1968. .193.].          :         1919 .[26 -  ..,  ..  :     , 19201930- : . . . . .: , 2016. .18.]      , ,             ,          , ,  ,   [27 -  . . . .193.].

    ,   ,           . , ,  -  -     1906        ,       1907       :    [28 -  .     . : . -  , 1906.].            ,       [29 -  ..  : (      ). .: . -, 1921.].

 ,              , , ,  ,          .       ,           ,  1894 ,        (,       ).           ,                ,        ,       [30 -  .  ,     //  .,  . . . 21. .: , 1961. .177.].    -  ,  18941910       ,          [31 -  ..  ,     //   . .:  , 1983. .538.].       XIX         ,    ,       ,       .  ,                        .

  ,     ,          -  ().  ,          ,       ,   ,     (   ).         , ,       ,     .     .

   ,           - :                        .     .  1871  ,     ,          ,             ().       ,    - -  .                         [32 -  .   . .: , 1963. .445446.].   ,         ,        . ,  ,     Volksstaat     ,         ,    .         :  []    ,   ,    -, , ,       [33 -  .  50- - //  . -.   ,  .  . .; .: , 1928. . VIVII.].

      , ,  ,    .  ,                 .   ,  ,          ,   , ,   , :   1878     -.    ,      , ,  ,      ,      ,        [34 -  . -.   ,  .   //  .,  . . . 20. .: , 1961. .270.].   ,          ,           .   , , ,         ,         ,          [35 -  . . . . XXIV.]. ,  ,          ,    ,     :             -.

  ,       ,    1879     180 .        .   ,          :   ,  18861887          [36 - Bebel A. Ausgew?hlte Reden und Schriften. Bd. 2/2. M?nchen, New Providence, London, Paris: K.G. Saur Verlag, 1995. S. 421.],           [37 - .:  .  ,    . .: - .  .  , 1906.],               ,        ,   .

             ,      .     ,  ,              -   XIX        .            .                  ,    ,      ,     [38 -  .        //  .   . : , 1918. .X.].

      ,       .  1876      18761877             ,    -      [39 -  . . XV.]         -,        .     .    ,           ,   [40 -  .   . .551552.].

  1891            ,      .   .               .  ,    , ,    -,            , ,   ,      .            ,         [41 -  .  : .  . . .: -   , 1907. .46.].            .     -   :   ,    ,   -     ,    ,      .     ,    1899    ,      ,              [42 -  ..     // . . . .4. .: , 1967. .224.].   ,  ,   II    1903 ,    ,   ,      :   .        ,      [43 -    . .: , 1924. .34.].

 18911892           .                -    .          (Deutsche Freisinnige Partei, DFP),    ,    1893   -  ,  ,  ,     .    1893         ,      ,   ,         - .   , ,  !   ,     -.            ,         !..  :       ;    ;        ,        ,   :      . <..>    ,     ,     ,     ,   ,         ,       - [44 -  : .   . : : , ,   . .: . . , [1907]. .8182.].        ,        ,      ,    .

    -        :               ,         26  1892 .   ,    , ,   - ,            ,       [45 -  . -    .  .  . .: . .. , 1893. .I.].   1893  1917         ,         19051907 ,        .. .

          ,           .           1895      [46 -  .  ,    :     . , 1895.].  ,       ,  ,     ,              .  1900            .    ,           ,  ..     1904 .   -           34-  [47 -  .    / .  34- . .  . .. . : . .. , 1904.].            ,        :  540- ,     ,   9 .           ,                   .  ,       , ,        [48 - . .:  .  . : . .. , 1905;  .  . :   -, 1902;  .  . .: - ..  , 1905;  .  . : , 1917.].

               .     ,    ,     .    ,   1889        , :    ,      -    [49 -  ..   -  //  . 1923. 2. .20.].                  ,   , ,  [50 -  ..       //  . 1985. 2. .34.].       ,  -    , ,   1893                   .          ,        [51 -  .      //      . .: . -   , 1932. .65.].

         . .  ,    1904 ,          ,   ,      ,    ,   ,  ,   , ,    ,    .   ,   10     ,          ?,       ,    [52 -  .   . New York: Chalidze Publications, 1981. .102.].   ,     ,        .      ,                .      ,      18701880- ,     ,  ,   ,       ,   [53 - ., .:  ..   : [ 18971919.]. .: , 1930. .52.].    ,     ,  ,    ,       ,     [54 -  . . . .IX.].

    1917 .      ,    -.         ,  5  1917            ,      [55 - . 1917. 6.],   , 23  1917 ,      ,        ,  ,   ,  300-   .           1917 ,       ,     ,        ,       ,      ( , ,   ),         .

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      1917 ,     ,     .    ,    ,           .    ,     .              .       ,      .  1920        .   1936         ,            .     .      1920-     .        ,               .   ,  ,                ,   ,      .







          .                19831984       19841985 .          ,          1989    19901991  .    -        .           .   6     : Working-Class Women and the 'Withering Away' of the Family: Popular Responses to Family Policy // Russia in the Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture / ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Rabinowitch, Richard Stites. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1991; Freedom and Its Consequences: The Debate on the Soviet Family Code of 1926 // Russian History. 1984. Vol. 11. 4.  7     : Abortion, the State and Soviet Women, 19171936 // Russian Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation / ed. Barbara Clements, Barbara Engel, Christine Worobec. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991. .. ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,               .      ,               .     ,     ,       .   ,              ,             .                ,            .      .      ,        .         .         ,  ,   ,     ,   .      ,          .




1

  :   

 



 :             .

 , 1883[56 - . : Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down. Radical Ideas during the English Revolution. New York: Penguin Books, 1975. P.306.]

[]     ,        ,   ,    .

. . ,    , 1929[57 -  ..    . , 1929. .450.* (*    :       ,     ,  .         . . .)]

  1918 ,         , ,   ,      ,   .        ,       .           ,      ,        . ,       .  :     ,     , ,   ,         .  ,      [58 -  ..     //    . 1918. 7. .4, 8,9.].

   -  ,       ,     .            ,    1917 ,        .           , ,     ,       ,   [59 -  (. libertarianism,  . libertas  )  ,      . . .]  [60 -    ,     ,     . . .]       ,     .      - ,  ,             .          ,         .          , , ,   ,          哻.   ,       ,        !      [61 -  ..    //  . .2. ., 1970. .352, 353, 317.].

,     ,        1930- .   ,   ,  ,        ,      [62 - Engels, Frederick. The origin of family private property and state. New York: International, 1972. P.232.],      1929  .. ,  ,   . ,              . ,  ,     ,    ,      .            ,           ,  ,       .           XIX ,     .     ,    -     ,  , , ,      ,   .             ,   . ,   ,          ,   .

 ,          .         : ,          ,        ,    . ,    ,         . ,       ,          .        .           ,        .      ,         . ,     ,        ;       . ,     ,   ,    ,  ,          .




  


                .     1918   ,   ,    :    ,      ,         .    [63 -     .. :  ..         // . 1926. 1. .46.].    (19181921)  ,       .  ,  ,    ,          ,     .    ..   :      :    ,         ,   ,   ,   ,       [64 -  ..   //  . 1925. 1. .180.].  ,       ,      ,               :   ,            ,   ,        , ..   ,       .         ,  ,         ,     ,  - .    ,              ,      [65 -  .    // . 1920. 7. .17, 18.      .: Clements, Barbara. Bolshevik Feminist. The Life of Aleksandra Kollontai. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979; Emancipation through Communism: Ideology of A.M. Collontai // Slavic Review. 1973. 30. P.323338; Farnsworth, Beatrice. Alexandra Kollontai. Socialism, Feminism and Bolshevik Revolution. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980.].

,     ,        . ,  ,    ,        1920-       .  ,                [66 - ., ,  ,  . :    :  /  . . . ., 1924.].     .        ,   ,     .       ,      ,          .      ,    ,     ,   ,          .

,  ,   ,   ,   ,    ,   .          ,    ,      ,   [67 -  ..        .   IV      23  1919. // .. . . . . . 39. ., 1974. .198205.].    ,  ,         ,      ,       , ,  .      .  ,             ,            [68 - Lenin V.I. The Emancipation of Women. New York, 1934. P.63,69.].

  ,        ,         .      . ,   ,    ,   ,    . ,   ,     ,   .            ,   [69 -  .         // . 1921. 1213. .29.].       ,           ,             .  ,   ,    ,   [70 -  .     // . 1920. 6. .20.].

    ,              ,         .     .      ,         ,  .    ,           [71 -  .     // . 1920. 6. .20.].  ,           .                  .  ,       .     .    ,          , , , .   ,     ,    [72 -  .       // . 1923. 13 ;   : Women and the Family. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. P.26.].    1920-     ,  ,        [73 -      .  : Shlapentokh, Vladimir. Love, Marriage, and Friendship in the Soviet Union. Ideals and Practices. New York: Praeger, 1984.].

  ,      ,     .  . ,       , :   ,   ,     .   -,      -   .    -       .

        ,           .     ,    :      ,   ,        , , [74 -  .        //       . ., 1925. .101102.].    ,       . ,  ,      -     .      ,       .     ,  ,       [75 - .        : Lenin. Op. cit. P.3640,42.].

  ,     ,    ? , ,  ?     .     ,    .  ,   ,   ,      .      ,  ,  .          ,    ,  .  :          ,    ,       ,     .     ,          : ,  ,   .                 ?[76 - .        . .31; Lenin. Op. cit. P.106.]

  , ,  ,    ,   , ,              .      ,   .               :    ,  - ,   [77 - .    . .446, 447.].

        .  ,          ,          .              ,           .          ,  ,    ,  -         [78 - . . . .110.].                 .

      ,          ,         .    ,       ,    ,      .      ,    ,  ,         ,     .    ,  ,   ,  .    ,      [79 - Lenin. Op. cit. P.101, 106.].

,             .       .     ,              ,    .  ,       ,  :        ,          ,  [80 -  .        //    . 1919. 1. .26.].        ,     .          ?          ?   ,      :            .         .  ,                 .

. , ,  1921     ,   ,        . ,  ,    , ,   ,   ,   ,    ,   .     ,  ,   -         .           ,      800  1000     3  18 .        ,     ,    ,   ,    .    ,          ,    [81 -  .    .    // . 1921. 1213. .2627.].        ,   .           .   ,      ,  , ,      ,      [82 -  .. ,      . ., 1920. .5.].    ,  ,   ,    .  ,      ,     .

     ,        .   ,         .           .     ,     :   ,   .    ,         ,  :  ,    ,              .    .    [],   , ,  ,   -       .       ,      .   ,   ,     ,      -.    ,  ,          .         ,      [83 - Kollontai A. Communism and the Family // Selected Writings. New York; London: W.W. Norton, 1977. P.257258, 134.].

       ,        .   ,   ,      ,       .       .    ,  :       .              [84 - .       . .2627.].

 ,       ,        ,      ,                   .  , ,           ,      ,       .     , , ,     ,    ,       .    ,     ,       ,      [85 -  ..   - . ., 1928. .20.].

 ,   ,      ,      .     ,       .   , ,    ,      ,         ,   .  ,     ,    [86 - .        . .29.].

 ,  ,  ,     .   ,    ,         . -,    ,          .           .        ,         .    ,       ,                .

-,  ,        ,      .     ,    ,   ,          .                .             ,      .

-,             .  ,       ,  ,       .               ,                          [87 -      .: Ransel, David. Mothers of Misery. Child Abandonment in Russia. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988.].    , ,  ,      .        .

-,              .                 ,  ,            .  ,       ,       ,    ,  .         ,         .                    .      ,                    1930- .

  ,       :  ,     ,      .       ,      .     ,         XVII ,        .    XVIII           .  XIX                ,            .          ,   .     ,            ,         ,     1917 .




 


             .  XII             ,      .      ,  , -   ,    [88 - Nigg, Walter. The Heretics. New York: Knopf, 1962. P.226236.].  XIV     ,  ,       ,           ,    ,           .      ,  - XV ,  :  ,            1421 .    , ,   ,      , ,         [89 - Lambert, Malcolm. Medieval Heresy. Popular Movements from Bogomil to Hus. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977. P.173178, 322323.].                [90 -         . .: Kautsky, Karl. Communism in Central Europe at the Time of the Reformation. New York: Russell and Russell, 1959.].      ,                           .

      XVII ,     ,        .              [91 -  (. chilis  )   (. mille  )  -        .] ,           ,    .  1600          .  -,              .          ,      ,      [92 - Gillis, John. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. P.102, 13,99.].   ,    [93 -  (. . ????  , ?????  )    .],       .

        ,    [94 -    ,               .]       ,    .     ,           .  1640-  1650-                    [95 -     , ,   1640     ,   : Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 15001800. New York: Harper, 1979. P.107, 109; Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.102.].

            .      ,   ,     ,       .     ,            (16531660)          [96 - Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.82, 85, 55, 56,86.].                     .          ,      ,   .        ,       ,     . ,      ,   ,   ,          [97 - Durston, Christopher. The Family in the English Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989. P.12.].    ,    ,   .       ,     .  ,    ,             [98 - Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.102103.].       ,         .           . ,       ,        [99 - Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.308, 310, 312, 315; Durston. Op. cit. P.10, 12, 15, 16, 1819,20.].

            .                     .  ,        .   ,   ,  ,    ,        ,    .    ,       ,  ,     [100 - Winstanley as quoted in: Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.319.].  ,         ,   ,    ,           [101 - Durston. Op. cit. P.25, 26, 30; Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.103.] 101.

 ,  ,    XVII ,   .                .               .        .        ,         .         ,         .     (    ),         ,        ,     [102 - Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.311, 306307.].

             ,   ,      ,    ,    .      ,   ,       ,   ,     ,           [103 - Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.99.].   -       XVII .    ,        ,     .

       .         ,    .   XVIII     , ,         ,   .   ,    ,   .             [104 - Ibid. P.101, 135, 100, 102.].




   


  XVIII            ,            [105 - ,   XVIII   50  90%       . .: Hufton, Olwen. Women, Work and Marriage in Eighteenth Century France // Marriage and Society. Studies in the Social History of Marriage / ed. R.B. Outhwaite. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981. P.186203.   , .: Hill, Bridget. Women, Work and Sexual Politics in Eighteenth Century England. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.].            ,         .          ,          ,     [106 - Braun, Rudolf. The Impact of Cottage Industry on an Agricultural Population // The Rise of Capitalism / ed. David Landes. New York: Macmillan, 1966. P.58.  ,   ,    . ., : Medick, Hans. The Protoindustrial Family Economy: The Structural Function of Household and Family during the Transition from Peasant Society to Industrial Capitalism // Social History. 1976. 1. P.291315; Levine, David. Proto-Industrialization and Demographic Upheaval // Essays on the Family and Historical Change / ed. David Levine. Texas A & M University Press, College Station, 1983. P.934; Levine, David. Industrialization and the Proletarian Family in England // Past and Present. May 1985. 107. P.168203; Fischer, Wolfram. Rural Industrialization and Population Change // Comparative Studies in Society and History. March 1973. Vol. 15. 2. P.158170.].            [107 - Bohstedt, John. The Myth of the Feminine Food Riot.: Women as Proto-Citizens in English Community Politics, 17901810 // Women and Politics in the Age of the Democratic Revolution / ed. Harriet Applewhite, Darline Levy. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1990. P.34,35.].   ,    ,          .   ,    ,    ,       ,       [108 - Gillis, John. Peasant, Plebeian, and Proletarian Marriage in Britain, 16001900 // Proletarianization and Family History / ed. David Levine. New York: Academic Press, 1984. P.138150.].

        ,           .       ,   -     ,        .      XVII ,           ,          ,     ().  ,       ,          ,        [109 - Clinton, Katherine. Femme et Philosophe: Enlightenment Origins of Feminism // Eighteenth Century Studies. 1975. 8.].

       ,      . , ,     ,  ,    ,       ,              .   ,       ,     .            [110 - Gardner, Elizabeth. The Philosophes and Women: Sensationalism and Sentiment; Jimack P.D. The Paradox of Sophie and Julie: Contemporary Responses to Rousseau's Ideal Wife and Ideal Mother // Women and Society in Eighteenth Century France: Essays in Honor of John Stephenson Spink / ed. E. Jacobs, W. Barber, J. Block, F. Leakey, E. LeBreton. London: Athlone Press, 1979. P.2124, 152153.].

  ,       ,   ,    . ,    ,        ,               .           ,             [111 - Clinton. Op. cit. P.291295; Jimack. Op. cit. P.152.].       .     ,     ,     ,  [112 - Rendall, Jane. The Origin of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France, and the United States, 17801860. New York: Macmillan, 1985. P.4.].

                 .       ,   ,       ,       .    ,           .       ,   ,                   [113 -        .  Clinton,  : Tomaselli, Sylvana. The Enlightenment Debate on Women // History Workshop Journal. 1985. 20.].      ,        ,       ,  ,    .   ,    ,        ,       [114 -         .: Landes, Joan. Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of Revolution. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988.].

     ,       ,               [115 - Kleinbaum, Abby R. Women in the Age of Light // Becoming Visible. Women in European History / ed. Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. P.233.].         ,            .   ,       XVIII ,   -                   .           ,    -  ,        ,  , ,   .     85%   ,               ;       [116 - Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth. Women and Work // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment / ed. Samia Spencer. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984;   : Work and Organization // Rendall. P.150.].  ,    ,             ,         .       ,  ,       .

       ,           ,        .          ,          [117 - Proctor, Candice. Women, Equality and the French Revolution. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990. P.70.].           ,           ,     .                     ,              ,     ,       .   [118 -   (Cahiers de dolances, .)  ,     ,     XVI   1789      .] 1789    ,     ,    ,          [119 - Abray, Jane. Feminism in the French Revolution // American Historical Review. 1975. 80. P.59, 47; Graham, Ruth. Loaves and Liberty // Becoming Visible. P.238242; Levy, Darline. Applewhite, Harriet. Women, Democracy and Revolution in Paris // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment / ed. Spencer. P.6467.].

           ,   .  , ,       ,          .        ,       1792       ,      [120 - Levy. Op. cit. P.90;   ,               , . : Godineau, Dominique. Masculine and Feminine Political Practice during the French Revolution. Ibid.].        ,   ,    ,         .            ,                .    ,      [121 - Hufton, Olwen. Women in Revolution. 17891796 // Past and Present. 1971. 53. P.94.            XIX  . : Rendall. Op. cit. P.200203.].

            ,   ,        ,     -     ,     .        ,       ,        ,        .    -            .                  [122 - Rogers, Katharine. Feminism in Eighteenth Century England. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982. P.183189, 246.].        ,          .  ,       ,           [123 - Rendall. Op. cit. P.68,70.].

                   .  1793      ,          .      ,     ,          ,       1804 .            [124 - Phillips, Roderick. Women's Emancipation, the Family, and Social Change in Eighteenth Century France // Journal of Social History. 1974. 12; Rogers, Adrienne. Women and the Law // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment; Johnson, Mary. Old Wine in New Bottles: Institutional Change for Women of the People during the French Revolution // Women, War and Revolution / ed. Carol Berkin, Clara Lovett. New York; London: Holmes and Meier, 1980.]




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Goldman, Wendy Z. Women, the State and Revolution. Soviet Family Policy and Social Live, 19171936. Cambridge University Press, 1993.




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     ,         16001800 ,     .




18


 .. ..  // . .5. .: , [1925]. .118.




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20


 .. . . .128.




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26


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27


 . . . .193.




28


 .     . : . -  , 1906.




29


 ..  : (      ). .: . -, 1921.




30


 .  ,     //  .,  . . . 21. .: , 1961. .177.




31


 ..  ,     //   . .:  , 1983. .538.




32


 .   . .: , 1963. .445446.




33


 .  50- - //  . -.   ,  .  . .; .: , 1928. . VIVII.




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 . . . . XXIV.




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37


.:  .  ,    . .: - .  .  , 1906.




38


 .        //  .   . : , 1918. .X.




39


 . . XV.




40


 .   . .551552.




41


 .  : .  . . .: -   , 1907. .46.




42


 ..     // . . . .4. .: , 1967. .224.




43


   . .: , 1924. .34.




44


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45


 . -    .  .  . .: . .. , 1893. .I.




46


 .  ,    :     . , 1895.




47


 .    / .  34- . .  . .. . : . .. , 1904.




48


. .:  .  . : . .. , 1905;  .  . :   -, 1902;  .  . .: - ..  , 1905;  .  . : , 1917.




49


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50


 ..       //  . 1985. 2. .34.




51


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52


 .   . New York: Chalidze Publications, 1981. .102.




53


., .:  ..   : [ 18971919.]. .: , 1930. .52.




54


 . . . .IX.




55


. 1917. 6.




56


. : Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down. Radical Ideas during the English Revolution. New York: Penguin Books, 1975. P.306.




57


 ..    . , 1929. .450.* (*    :       ,     ,  .         . . .)




58


 ..     //    . 1918. 7. .4, 8,9.




59


 (. libertarianism,  . libertas  )  ,      . . .




60


   ,     ,     . . .




61


 ..    //  . .2. ., 1970. .352, 353, 317.




62


Engels, Frederick. The origin of family private property and state. New York: International, 1972. P.232.




63


    .. :  ..         // . 1926. 1. .46.




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 .    // . 1920. 7. .17, 18.      .: Clements, Barbara. Bolshevik Feminist. The Life of Aleksandra Kollontai. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979; Emancipation through Communism: Ideology of A.M. Collontai // Slavic Review. 1973. 30. P.323338; Farnsworth, Beatrice. Alexandra Kollontai. Socialism, Feminism and Bolshevik Revolution. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980.




66


., ,  ,  . :    :  /  . . . ., 1924.




67


 ..        .   IV      23  1919. // .. . . . . . 39. ., 1974. .198205.




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Lenin V.I. The Emancipation of Women. New York, 1934. P.63,69.




69


 .         // . 1921. 1213. .29.




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 .     // . 1920. 6. .20.




71


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72


 .       // . 1923. 13 ;   : Women and the Family. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. P.26.




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     .  : Shlapentokh, Vladimir. Love, Marriage, and Friendship in the Soviet Union. Ideals and Practices. New York: Praeger, 1984.




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.        : Lenin. Op. cit. P.3640,42.




76


.        . .31; Lenin. Op. cit. P.106.




77


.    . .446, 447.




78


. . . .110.




79


Lenin. Op. cit. P.101, 106.




80


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81


 .    .    // . 1921. 1213. .2627.




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 .. ,      . ., 1920. .5.




83


Kollontai A. Communism and the Family // Selected Writings. New York; London: W.W. Norton, 1977. P.257258, 134.




84


.       . .2627.




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.        . .29.




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     .: Ransel, David. Mothers of Misery. Child Abandonment in Russia. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988.




88


Nigg, Walter. The Heretics. New York: Knopf, 1962. P.226236.




89


Lambert, Malcolm. Medieval Heresy. Popular Movements from Bogomil to Hus. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977. P.173178, 322323.




90


        . .: Kautsky, Karl. Communism in Central Europe at the Time of the Reformation. New York: Russell and Russell, 1959.




91


 (. chilis  )   (. mille  )  -        .




92


Gillis, John. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. P.102, 13,99.




93


 (. . ????  , ?????  )    .




94


   ,               .




95


    , ,   1640     ,   : Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 15001800. New York: Harper, 1979. P.107, 109; Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.102.




96


Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.82, 85, 55, 56,86.




97


Durston, Christopher. The Family in the English Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989. P.12.




98


Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.102103.




99


Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.308, 310, 312, 315; Durston. Op. cit. P.10, 12, 15, 16, 1819,20.




100


Winstanley as quoted in: Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.319.




101


Durston. Op. cit. P.25, 26, 30; Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.103.




102


Hill, Christopher. Op. cit. P.311, 306307.




103


Gillis. For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present. P.99.




104


Ibid. P.101, 135, 100, 102.




105


,   XVIII   50  90%       . .: Hufton, Olwen. Women, Work and Marriage in Eighteenth Century France // Marriage and Society. Studies in the Social History of Marriage / ed. R.B. Outhwaite. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981. P.186203.   , .: Hill, Bridget. Women, Work and Sexual Politics in Eighteenth Century England. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.




106


Braun, Rudolf. The Impact of Cottage Industry on an Agricultural Population // The Rise of Capitalism / ed. David Landes. New York: Macmillan, 1966. P.58.  ,   ,    . ., : Medick, Hans. The Protoindustrial Family Economy: The Structural Function of Household and Family during the Transition from Peasant Society to Industrial Capitalism // Social History. 1976. 1. P.291315; Levine, David. Proto-Industrialization and Demographic Upheaval // Essays on the Family and Historical Change / ed. David Levine. Texas A & M University Press, College Station, 1983. P.934; Levine, David. Industrialization and the Proletarian Family in England // Past and Present. May 1985. 107. P.168203; Fischer, Wolfram. Rural Industrialization and Population Change // Comparative Studies in Society and History. March 1973. Vol. 15. 2. P.158170.




107


Bohstedt, John. The Myth of the Feminine Food Riot.: Women as Proto-Citizens in English Community Politics, 17901810 // Women and Politics in the Age of the Democratic Revolution / ed. Harriet Applewhite, Darline Levy. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1990. P.34,35.




108


Gillis, John. Peasant, Plebeian, and Proletarian Marriage in Britain, 16001900 // Proletarianization and Family History / ed. David Levine. New York: Academic Press, 1984. P.138150.




109


Clinton, Katherine. Femme et Philosophe: Enlightenment Origins of Feminism // Eighteenth Century Studies. 1975. 8.




110


Gardner, Elizabeth. The Philosophes and Women: Sensationalism and Sentiment; Jimack P.D. The Paradox of Sophie and Julie: Contemporary Responses to Rousseau's Ideal Wife and Ideal Mother // Women and Society in Eighteenth Century France: Essays in Honor of John Stephenson Spink / ed. E. Jacobs, W. Barber, J. Block, F. Leakey, E. LeBreton. London: Athlone Press, 1979. P.2124, 152153.




111


Clinton. Op. cit. P.291295; Jimack. Op. cit. P.152.




112


Rendall, Jane. The Origin of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France, and the United States, 17801860. New York: Macmillan, 1985. P.4.




113


       .  Clinton,  : Tomaselli, Sylvana. The Enlightenment Debate on Women // History Workshop Journal. 1985. 20.




114


        .: Landes, Joan. Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of Revolution. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988.




115


Kleinbaum, Abby R. Women in the Age of Light // Becoming Visible. Women in European History / ed. Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. P.233.




116


Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth. Women and Work // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment / ed. Samia Spencer. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984;   : Work and Organization // Rendall. P.150.




117


Proctor, Candice. Women, Equality and the French Revolution. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990. P.70.




118


  (Cahiers de dolances, .)  ,     ,     XVI   1789      .




119


Abray, Jane. Feminism in the French Revolution // American Historical Review. 1975. 80. P.59, 47; Graham, Ruth. Loaves and Liberty // Becoming Visible. P.238242; Levy, Darline. Applewhite, Harriet. Women, Democracy and Revolution in Paris // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment / ed. Spencer. P.6467.




120


Levy. Op. cit. P.90;   ,               , . : Godineau, Dominique. Masculine and Feminine Political Practice during the French Revolution. Ibid.




121


Hufton, Olwen. Women in Revolution. 17891796 // Past and Present. 1971. 53. P.94.            XIX  . : Rendall. Op. cit. P.200203.




122


Rogers, Katharine. Feminism in Eighteenth Century England. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982. P.183189, 246.




123


Rendall. Op. cit. P.68,70.




124


Phillips, Roderick. Women's Emancipation, the Family, and Social Change in Eighteenth Century France // Journal of Social History. 1974. 12; Rogers, Adrienne. Women and the Law // French Women and the Age of Enlightenment; Johnson, Mary. Old Wine in New Bottles: Institutional Change for Women of the People during the French Revolution // Women, War and Revolution / ed. Carol Berkin, Clara Lovett. New York; London: Holmes and Meier, 1980.


