English inAnatomy
 


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English inAnatomy



 



 ,2025



ISBN978-5-0068-1797-5

     Ridero




ENGLISH INANATOMY

       










            ,   .        ,      ,    , ,  .          .    ,   ,   ,   ,     ,       .             ,          Something toThink about,     Clues. ,         Combining Forms,    Review ,  , -   Vocabulary       .          Ing-forms Infinitive.          ,    .




Chapter 1. Terms Pertaining tothe Body as aWhole





Text 1. TheCell


The cell is the fundamental unit ofevery living thing. Cells are everywhere inthe human body every tissue, every organ, is made up ofthese individual units.

All cells are similar inthat they contain agelatinous substance composed ofwater, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and minerals. This substance is called protoplasm.

Cell membrane surrounds and protects the internal environment ofthe cell, determining what passes inand out ofthe cell.

Nucleus is the controlling structure ofthe cell. It controls the way acell reproduces, and contains genetic material which determines the functioning and structure ofthe cell. All the material within the nucleus is called nucleoplasm or karyoplasm.

NB! Words ofLatin origin in-us commonly form their plural bydropping the -us and adding -i. Thus, nucleus becomes nuclei.

Chromosomes are 23pairs ofthin strands ofgenetic material (DNA) located within the nucleus ofacell. These 23pairs ofchromosomes contain regions known as genes which determine our hereditary makeup. The DNA within the chromosomes regulates the activities ofeach cell byguiding the formation ofanother substance, called RNA, which can leave the cell nucleus, enter the cytoplasm, and direct the activities ofthe cell.

Chromosomes can be classified as tosize, arrangement, and number. This classification is called akaryotype. Karyotyping ofchromosomes is useful indetermining whether chromosomes are normal innumber and structure.

Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic material outside the nucleus. It carries on the work ofthe cell. The cytoplasm contains:

Mitochondria small bodies which carry on the production ofenergy inthe cell byburning food inthe presence ofoxygen. This process is called catabolism. During catabolism complex structures are broken down into simpler substances and energy is released.

Endoplasmic reticulum aseries ofcanals within the cell. Some canals contain small bodies called ribosomes which help make substances for the cell. This building-up process is called anabolism. Together the processes ofcatabolism and anabolism constitute the total metabolism ofthe cell.

Cells are different, or specialized, throughout the body tocarry out their individual functions.




Combining Forms


ana-up

bol- tocast or throw

cata-down

cyto-cell

endo- inside

karyo- nucleus

meta- transfer, transition

plasma formation; contents

somebody




Tasks


1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process offood breakdown toproduce energy

contents ofthecell

2. Answer the questions:

1. What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

2. Describe the location ofchromosomes.

3. Describe the function ofchromosomes.

4. What are substances inthe cytoplasm ofthe cell which produce energy bychemically burning food inthe presence ofoxygen?

5. What structure contains the hereditary material (DNA) ofthe cell?

6. What term is used toname building-up, or synthesizing, process inthe cell.

7. What term is used toname breaking-down, or destruction, process inthe cell.

8. What are structures incytoplasm ofcell which are the site ofprotein synthesis?

9. How do we call the network ofcanals incell?

10. What is the name for total ofbuilding-up and breaking-down processes incell?

3. Read the description ofdifferent cells and find out what they are. Choose the correct answer from the given ones: skin cell, nerve cell, muscle cell, fatcell

this cell is long and slender and contains fibers which aid incontracting and relaxing;

this cell may be square and flat toprovide protection;

this cell may be quite long and have various extensions which aid it inits job ofcarrying impulses;

this cell contains large, empty spaces for storage




Text 2. Tissues


Atissue is agroup ofsimilar cells working together todo aspecificjob.

Epithelial tissue is located inglands, skin, the digestive tract, and the urinary tract. It is necessary for protection, lining tubes, and secretion.

Connective tissue can be fat (also called adipose tissue), cartilage, bone, or blood.

Nerve tissue conducts impulses all over the body.

Muscle tissue is found inparts ofthe body where movement is voluntary (arms, legs, etc.), and inother places where movement is not under conscious control (heart, digestive system).




Combining Forms


histo- tissue

logist one who specializes inany study

logy process ofstudy




Tasks


1. Build medical terms using combining forms:

process ofstudy oftissues

ascientist who specializes inthe study oftissues

2. Answer the questions:

What is adipose tissue?

What is epithelial tissue?




Text 3. Organs and Systems


Organs are structures composed ofseveral kinds oftissue. For example, the stomach is composed ofmuscle tissue, nerve tissue, and glandular epithelial tissue. The medical term for internal organs is viscera. Systems are groups oforgans working together toperform complex functions.




Tasks


1. Find out the singular number for the word viscera taking into account its Latin origin.

2. Examine lists ofthe body organs and find out the corresponding name ofthe body system which they belong to: nervous, urinary, digestive, endocrine

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas;

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

thyroid gland, pituitary gland, sex glands, adrenal glands, islets ofLangerhans, parathyroid glands, pineal gland, thymus

brain, spinal cord, nerves




Text 4. Positional and Directional Terms


Afferent conducting toward astructure.

Efferent conducting away from astructure.

Anterior (ventral) infront ofthe body. Ventral and anterior mean the same position inthe human.

Posterior (dorsal) back ofthe body. Dorsal means the same position as posterior.

Central pertaining tothe center.

Deep away from the surface.

Superficial near the surface.

Distal away from the beginning ofastructure.

Proximal pertaining tothe beginning ofastructure.

Inferior(caudal) away from the head, situated below another structure.

Superior (cephalic) pertaining tothe head, situated above another structure.

Lateral pertaining tothe side.

Medial pertaining tothe middle.




Tasks


1. Fill the blanks with appropriate positional and directional terms:

Arteries are blood vessels since they take blood away from the heart.

The abdomen is located tothe spinal cord.

The heart is located inthe portion ofthe thoracic cavity.

Veins are called vessels since they take blood toward the heart.

The lobes ofthe brain are inthe back ofthe head and are called the occipital lobes.

At the end, the femur joins with the patella.

The end ofthe femur joins with the pelvic bone.

The wound was a one, just penetrating the skin.

Ina presentation ofthe fetus, the head comes through the birth canal first.

The lesion penetrated into the abdomen, away from the surface ofthe body.

The fifth finger lies tothe other fingers.

The feet are the parts ofthe human body.

The little toes are tothe big toes.

2. Give the opposites ofthe following terms:

deep; afferent; proximal; ventral; posterior; caudal




Text 5. Planes oftheBody


Aplane is an imaginary flat surface. The planes ofthe bodyare:

Frontal (coronal) vertical plane which divides the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.

Sagittal lengthwise vertical plane which divides the body or structure into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves.

Transverse plane running across the body parallel tothe ground (horizontal). It divides the body or structure into upper and lower portions.




Answer the questions


Which plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions?

Which plane divides the body into upper and lower portions?

Which plane divides the body into left and right halves?




Chapter 2. Digestive System





Text 1. Oral Cavity


The gastrointestinal tract begins with the oral (buccal) cavity, or mouth. The cheeks form the walls ofthe mouth cavity, while the lips form the opening tothis cavity.

NB! noun: cheek adjective ofLatin origin: buccal

The hard palate forms the anterior portion ofthe roof ofthe mouth while the muscular soft palate lies posterior toit and separates the mouth from the pharynx (throat).

The tongue extends across the floor ofthe oral cavity and is attached bymuscles tothe mandible (lower jaw bone). It moves food during mastication (chewing) and deglutition (swallowing). The tongue is covered with aseries ofsmall projections called papillae which contain cells (taste buds).

NB!singular: papilla plural: papillae [from Latin]

The gums surround the sockets inwhich the teeth are found. There are 32permanent teeth, 16ineach jaw bone. There are: 4incisors; 2cuspids, or canines; 4premolars, or bicuspids; 6molars.

Atooth consists ofacrown, which is above the gum, and aroot, which is embedded inan alveolus, or tooth socket.

NB!singular: alveolus plural: alveoli [from Latin]

The outermost protective layer ofthe crown is called the enamel, the hardest substance inthe body. Underneath the enamel is the main bulk ofthe tooth, called the dentin. Dentin is composed ofbony tissue and is covered byaprotective layer ofcementum. Below the dentin is asoft, vascular layer inthe center ofthe tooth called the pulp. Within the pulp are blood vessels, connective tissue, nerve endings, lymph vessels.

The three pairs ofsalivary glands are exocrine glands. They produce saliva, fluid which contains digestive enzymes tochemically break down starches into sugar.




Text 2. Pharynx


Food passes from the mouth tothe pharynx. The pharynx is amuscular tube lined with amucous membrane. It serves as apassageway for air from the nasal cavity tothe larynx (voice box), as well as for food going from the mouth tothe esophagus. Aflap oftissue called the epiglottis covers the opening tothe larynx and prevents food from entering the trachea (windpipe) byclosing over the air passageway during swallowing.




Text 3. Esophagus. Stomach


The esophagus is amuscular tube extending from the pharynx tothe stomach. It aids inswallowing and moves food along the gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis is the name ofthe involuntary, progressive, wavelike contraction ofthe esophagus and other tubes ofthe gastrointestinal tract which propel the food through the system. Food passes from the esophagus tothe stomach. The stomach is composed ofafundus (upper round part), abody (middle part), and an antrum (lower bulge inthe distal part ofthe stomach). The openings allowing food into and out ofthe stomach are controlled byrings ofmuscles called sphincters. The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts tomove food from the esophagus into the stomach, while the pyloric sphincter allows food toleave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested. Rugae are the folds inthe mucous membrane lining the stomach. The gastric glands which produce enzymes and hydrochloric acid todigest food are located inthis gastric mucosa.

NB! From Latin: sing. ruga plur. rugae




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


What is the role ofthe stomach?

Does the food enter the bloodstream through the stomach?

What enzyme is needed toconvert proteins tosmaller substances called peptones?

What for is hydrochloric acid necessary?




Text 4. Small Intestine


The small intestine, or small bowel, extends from the pyloric sphincter tothe first part ofthe large intestine. It is 20feet long and has three parts. The duodenum, the first part, receives food from the stomach, bile from the liver and gallbladder, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Food is digested inthe duodenum and passes inperistaltic waves from the duodenum tothe second part, the jejunum, which is about 8feet long. The jejunum connects with the third section, the ileum, about 11feet long, which is attached tothe large intestine.

Inthe wall ofthe small intestine there are millions oftiny projections, called villi.

NB! From Latin: sing. villus plur. villi

It is through the capillary network ofthe villi that digested food pass toenter the bloodstream.




Text 5. Large Intestine


The large intestine extends from the ileum tothe anus. It is divided into four parts cecum, colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The cecum, or the first part, is apounch on the right side which is connected tothe ileum bythe ileocecal sphincter. The vermiform appendix hangs from the cecum. The colon is about 5feet long and has three divisions: the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon. The sigmoid colon is at the distal end ofthe descending colon and leads into the rectum. The rectum terminates inthe lower opening ofthe gastrointestinal tract, the anus.




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


What is the function ofthe vermiform appendix?

Which division ofthe colon passes horizontally tothe left toward the spleen?

Inwhich part ofthe large intestine is unabsorbed solid material stored?

What happens with the fluid by-products ofdigestion, such as water?




Text 6. Liver. Gallbladder. Pancreas


Three accessory organs ofthe digestive system are liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The liver, located inthe right quadrant ofthe abdominal cavity, manufactures athick, yellowish-brown fluid, called bile. Bile is released from the liver and travels down tohepaticduct tothe cystic duct.

NB!noun liver adjective hepatic [from Latin]

The cystic duct leads tothe gallbladder, asac under the liver, which stores bile for later use. After meals, the gallbladder contracts, forcing bile out the cystic duct and into the common bile duct, which joins with the pancreatic duct just before the entrance tothe duodenum. The duodenum receives amixture ofbile and pancreatic juice.

The pancreas manufactures and secretes juice which passes through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum, where it helps tobreak down all types offoods. Special cells inthe pancreas produce ahormone called insulin.




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


Does the food pass through the accessory organs ofthe digestive system?

What is bilirubin? [clues: bile pigment: waste product]

How does bile act? [clues: emulsifier; detergent-like effect]

How can the liver keep the amount ofsugar inthe blood at anormal level? [clues: glycogenesis; glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis]

What proteins does the liver manufacture?

How does the liver help tofight diseases?

What is urea? [clues: waste product; protein breakdown]

What is portal system [=portal circulation]?

Does the pancreas function as an exocrine or endocrine organ?

What are lipase and amylase?

What role does insulin play inthe body? [clue: utilization ofsugar]




Pay attention toCombining Forms ofGreek Origin


crine excretion

endo- inner

exo- outer

genesis formation

geno- formation; origin

glyco- [=gluco-] sugar; glucose

neo-new




Task. Build medical terms, using combining forms


pertaining tounder the tongue

pertaining tothe cheek

study ofthe stomach and intestines




Chapter 3. Urinary System





Text 1. Anatomy ofthe Major Organs


The organs ofthe urinary systemare:

1. Two kidneys bean-shaped, fist-sized organs situated behind the abdominal cavity on either side ofthe vertebral column inthe lumbar region.

The kidneys are embedded inacushion ofadipose tissue and surrounded byfibrous connective tissue for protection.

The kidneys consist ofan outer cortex region and an inner medulla region. The aorta brings waste-filled blood from the heart tothe kidneys via short, thick renal arteries which branch into both kidneys.

NB! noun: kidney adjective: renal (from Latin)

The filtration ofwaste materials from the blood toform urine takes place within the microscopic tubules ofthe kidney. The renal vein carries blood away from the kidneys tolarger veins and then back tothe heart.

2. Two ureters muscular tubes lined with mucous membrane. They convey urine inperistaltic waves from the kidney tothe urinary bladder.

3. Urinary bladder hollow, muscular, distensible sac inthe pelvic cavity. It serves as atemporary reservoir for urine.

4. Urethra membranous tube through which urine is discharged from the urinary bladder. The process ofexpelling urine through the urethra is called micturition. The external opening ofthe urethra is called the urethral or urinary meatus.




Task. Compare Latin anatomical terms with Englishones


ren; regio; textura; cortex; medulla; aorta; arteria; vena; arteria renalis; vena renalis; ureter; urethra; tuba muscularis; membrana mucosa; urina; vesica urinaria; meatus urinarius




Text 2. How the Kidneys Produce Urine


Blood is led tothe kidneys byway ofthe renal arteries. Each renal artery branches into many small arteries called arterioles. Each arteriole breaks up into amass oftiny, coiled, intertwined capillaries shaped like alittle ball and called glomerulus.

NB! singular: glomerulus plural: glomeruli (from Latin)

There are thousands ofglomeruli inthe cortex region ofeach kidney.

The process offorming urine begins inthe glomerulus as urea and other wastes filter out from the glomerulus into acuplike structure Bowmans capsule which encloses each glomerulus. At this point, the kidney has filtered out ofthe blood not only the waste product urea, but also valuable substances, such as sugar, salts and water. The kidney must reabsorb into the bloodstream all the materials the body need. The process ofreabsorption takes place through the walls ofthe tubules which lead from each Bowmans capsule. These tubules are renal tubules.

The distal renal tubules, carrying urine, merge toform the renal pelvis, aspace that fills most ofthe medulla ofthe kidney. Cuplike divisions ofthe renal pelvis which receive urine from the tubules are called calyces.

The renal pelvis narrows into the ureter which carries the urine tothe bladder where the urine is temporarily stored. The exit area ofthe bladder tothe urethra is closed bysphincters which do not permit urine toleave the bladder.

NB! singular: calyx plural: calyces (from Latin)

Task. Compare Latin anatomical terms with English ones:

tubuli renales distales; pelvis renalis; calyces; musculus sphincter




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


What is rennin? What is its role? [clues: kidney, produce, substance, stimulate, contraction, arterioles, increased blood pressure, normal blood flow]

What wastes do kidneys filter out? [clues: urea, creatinine, uric acid]

Why cant proteins pass through the walls ofthe glomerulus? [clues: large molecules]

What is composition ofurine? [clues: 95% water; 5% urea, creatinine, acids, salts, bile pigments]

What causes the desire tourinate? [clues: bladder; fill up; muscular contraction; walls ofthe bladder; pressure; the base ofthe urethra]




Chapter 4. Nervous System





Text 1. General Structure ofthe Nervous System


The nervous system can be classified into two major divisions: the central nervous system [CNS] and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists ofthe brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of12pairs ofcranial nerves and 31pairs ofspinal nerves.

Inaddition tothe spinal and cranial nerves, the peripheral nervous system consists ofalarge group ofnerves ofthe autonomic nervous system. These nerves are called efferent, since they carry impulses away from the central nervous system.

Some ofthe autonomic nerves are called sympathetic nerves and others are called parasympathetic nerves.

Ganglia, which are collections ofnerve tissue outside the brain and spinal glands, and plexuses, which are larger networks ofnerves, are prevalent inthe autonomic nervous system.

NB!sing. ganglion plur. ganglia [from Latin]

NB!sing. plexus plur. plexuses [from Latin]




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


What do cranial nerves carry impulses between?

What do spinal nerves carry messages between?

What nerves carry impulses from the CNS tothe glands, heart, blood vessels, and the involuntary muscles?

What nerves are involved with sensations ofsmell, taste, sight, hearing?

What nerves are involved with muscle movements?

What nerves stimulate the body intimes ofstress and crisis, i.e. increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilate airways, stimulate the adrenal glands?

What nerves normally act as abalance for the sympathetic nerves?




Task. Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding Englishones


systema nervosum; encephalon; medulla spinalis; nervus; nervi spinales; nervi craniales




Text 2. Neurons and Nerves


Aneuron is an individual nerve cell, amicroscopic structure. Impulses are passed along the parts ofanerve cell inadefinite manner and direction.

Astimulus begins awave ofexcitability inthe receptive branching fibers ofthe neuron which are called dendrites.

NB!sing. stimulus plur. stimuli [from Latin]

The nervous impulse wave, traveling inonly one direction, next reaches the cell body. Extending from the cell body is the axon which carries the impulse away from the cell body. Axons may be covered with afatty tissue sheath called amyelin sheath.

The nervous impulse passes through the axon toleave the cell via the terminal end fibers ofthe neuron. The space where the nervous impulse jumps from one neuron toanother is called the synapse.

Peripheral nerves which carry impulses tothe brain and spinal cord from stimulus receptors are called afferent nerves; those which carry impulses from the CNS toorgans which produce responses are called efferent nerves.

The interstitial tissue ofthe nervous system consists ofcells called neuroglia. These cells are supportive and connective infunction, as well as phagocytic. There are three types ofneuroglial cells: astrocytes, microglia, oligodendroglia.

Task. 1. Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:

nervi afferentes; nervi efferentes

2. Form the singular number form from the following plural nouns:

neuroglia; astroglia; microglia; oligodendroglia




Developing Questions: Something toThink about


Why are some parts ofthe spinal cord, the brain, and most peripheral nerves called white matter? [clues: myelin sheath; white appearance]

What is the gray matter ofthe brain and spinal cord referrred toas gray? [clues: collections ofcell bodies and dendrites; gray appearance; myelin sheath; not tocover]

Is aneuron amicroscopic structure or amacroscopicone?

Is anerve able tobe seen with the nakedeye?

What stimulus receptors do you know?

What organs which produce responses do you know?

Do neuroglial cells transmit impulses?

Which neuroglial cells are starlike?

Which neuroglial cells are very small?

Find out what is the function ofeach ofthe neuroglial cell type. [clues: transporting; phagocytes; function is unknown]




Text 3. The Brain


The brain is the primary center for regulating and coordinating body activities. It has many different parts, all ofwhich control different aspects ofbody functions.

The largest part ofthe brain is the cerebrum. The outer nervous tissue ofthe cerebrum, known as the cerebral cortex




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