Coach’s role in building athletes’ psychological resilience
Theoretical foundations and applied methods
Aleksandra Ezhova

© Aleksandra Ezhova, 2025

ISBN 978-5-0067-0327-8

Created with Ridero smart publishing system

Introduction

Sport is a multicomponent, complex system in which an athlete’s physical, technical, tactical, and psychophysiological readiness constitute an integral structure ensuring success in competitive activity. In the last decades, significant progress has been achieved in the knowledge of factors of sporting achievements. While earlier approaches were primarily concerned with the role of physical parameters and motor skills, recent studies have established that psychophysiological readiness – encompassing stress tolerance, self-regulation, and cognitive management – is equally significant for high-level performance.

A meta-analysis conducted by Kalén A. [1] investigates the role of cognitive functions in sports performance. The study examines domain-general and domain-specific cognitive skills, including working memory, attentional focus, and cognitive control. The authors conclude that an athlete’s achievement is not merely dependent on physical training and motor skills but also on cognitive features such as rapid decision-making, strategic thinking, and emotional state regulation. Significantly, athletes with highly advanced cognitive functions show greater performance on complex tactical tasks and under high psychophysiological stress.

The study by Merlin [2] explores the effects of controlled breathing techniques on the psychophysiological state of young swimmers. The experiment proved that slow, controlled breathing not only enhances subjective perceptions of sporting performance but also accelerates recovery processes, reduces anxiety levels, and increases feelings of control over the situation. The authors note that the systematic integration of breathing techniques into training guarantees stress resilience, improved self-regulation, and greater cognitive control efficiency, which ultimately leads to enhanced competitive performance.

The study by Murdoch [3] examines athletes’ reflection strategies on stressful situations and their impact on psychological resilience. The research compares two approaches: self-distanced reflection, where the athlete reflects on the situation as a third party, and self-immersed reflection, where there is strong emotional engagement with the experience. The findings indicate that self-distanced reflection is more effective in grasping the source of stress and reducing its impact on subsequent performances, whereas self-immersed reflection can heighten anxiety and lead to loss of self-confidence.

These findings stress that psychological toughness in sports people – for instance, self-control, coping with stress, and control of thinking – is equal in value to physical fitness. These qualities enable swimmers to manage competitive stress, remain focused, and fulfill their potential in the hostile climates of sport.

Generally, the psychological resilience of an athlete can be defined as a set of personal and cognitive characteristics that allow them to adapt to stressful situations, perform under extreme pressure, regulate their emotional states, and successfully cope with anxiety during competitions. This is most apparent in sports like swimming, where the level of mental toughness a competitor possesses will determine how effectively he or she will be able to manage high levels of physical exertion, exacting time limits, and emotional stress involved in competitive performance. Compared to team sports, where the task is capable of rearrangement and distribution of workload between members of the team, swimming is a sport where one swimmer has to take responsibility for the result of his or her performance. Absence of teammates, inability to set strategy while in competition, and limitation of external cues (sensory deprivation) make certain conditions for the swimmer in which there are high demands of self-control and emotional regulation.

Here, the role of the coach is significant, exercising a huge influence on shaping the psychological hardiness of a swimmer. His work involves not only training process organization, but also challenging pedagogical and psychological missions to shape the ideal psycho-emotional climate, firm motivation of the athlete, and the mechanism of self-regulation. Through a pedagogical process of targeted interventions, the coach fosters the swimmer’s adaptation to competitive stress, their volitional qualities, and their capacity to successfully control emotional states while performing under high psychophysiological loads.

The emotional engagement of the coach, communication, and support level during training and competition have a significant impact on the swimmer’s anxiety, self-confidence, and mobilization ability in critical situations.

However, in practice, the psychological elements of swimming training tend to be overlooked. Despite the popularity of sports psychology, the majority of coaches remain interested primarily in traditional means of physical and technical training, not complementing them with modern stress management and emotional control techniques. The absence can result in negative consequences such as pre-race tension, distraction during the critical moments, lack of motivation, and, ultimately, loss of sporting performance.

Thus, there is a necessity for the development of methodological guidelines that enable coaches to integrate psychological preparation into the training process, adapting existing scientific methods to certain competitive swimming requirements.

The relevance of this methodological guide is determined by the need for a systematic analysis of the coach’s role in shaping swimmers’ psychological resilience, as well as the development of effective methodological tools that enhance athletes’ stress resistance. In spite of the increasing volume of work on the cognitive, emotional, and social factors of sports performance, this factor is not yet fully explored in the sport of swimming, requiring additional theoretical consideration and experimental validation of psychological training processes for the development of stress resistance, self-regulation, and stress adaptation for competition. Not only must the main determinants of swimmers’ psychological preparedness be identified but also the most effective pedagogical conditions for fostering resistance to stress, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion.

The novelty of this methodological guide lies in its targeted focus on a comprehensive examination of the coach’s role in shaping swimmers’ psychological resilience, a topic that has previously been studied mainly within the framework of general sports psychology, without considering the specific nature of swimming. Unlike classic research, which highlights the technical and physiological bases of swim training, this book is dedicated to the pedagogical and psychological processes that underlie an athlete’s adaptation to stressful conditions, acquisition of skills for emotional regulation, and adequate performance under conditions of competitive pressure. The given methodological advice is meant to be applied practically in the course of training and to introduce psycho-pedagogical technologies into the system of swim training.

The goal of this methodological guide is to develop and justify effective approaches to building psychological resilience in swimmers through coaching activities, as well as to implement modern pedagogical and psychological technologies into the sports training process. It is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the coach’s role in developing stress resistance in swimmers, determine optimal coaching methods, and propose practical recommendations for their implementation in the training process.

To achieve this goal, the following objectives were formulated:

• conduct an analysis of theoretical approaches to the study of psychological resilience in sports and identify its specific characteristics in swimming;

• identify the key psychological factors affecting swimmers’ stress resistance levels;

• examine the impact of coaching style and interaction models on the formation of athletes’ psychological resilience;

• develop recommendations for the integration of psychological training methods into the training process;

• evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed methods and determine their applicability across various age and qualification groups of athletes;

• develop a practical coaching model that includes a system of exercises, diagnostic methods, and psychological training strategies, enabling the targeted development of swimmers’ stress resilience in both training and competitive settings.

This methodological guide has been developed based on a comprehensive approach, incorporating theoretical analysis, pedagogical design, empirical research, and practical testing of the proposed methods. The applied research made it possible to determine effective means of coaching that can contribute to the development of psychological resilience among swimmers and adapt them to different age and qualification groups of sportsmen.

Theoretical analysis and synthesis techniques were used to systematize scientific knowledge in sports psychology, pedagogy, and swimming physiology. This made it possible to identify prevailing means of forming resistance to stress, their practical significance, and their transformation based on the swimming training process needs. The comparative analysis method was applied to study various coaching models and assess their effectiveness in psychological training. Traditional and modern stress resilience development methods were analyzed, and their features were examined in the context of both individual and team sports.

The pedagogical design method allowed for the development of a system of methodological recommendations, including training exercises, coach-athlete interaction strategies, and psychological training integration algorithms in the training process. This approach ensured the practical applicability of the guide in various training conditions.

Observation method was used to explore emotional state and behavior of swimmers in stressful situations during training and competitions. Emphasis was placed on assessing pre-competition anxiety, responses to failure among athletes, and self-regulation strategies employed by swimmers under increased psychological pressure.

The modeling method was applied to develop practical exercises aimed at forming self-regulation skills, anxiety management, and concentration improvement. The developed models include simulation training, psychological testing, and cognitive strategy integration methods into the athlete preparation process.

The outcomes obtained have practical significance, as they can be used by coaches, sports psychologists, and sports preparation specialists to maximize training programs and implement psychological techniques that promote the development of swimmers’ stress resilience. The recommended methodological recommendations will enable coaches to introduce psychological training systematically into the process of training, develop communication with athletes, and create conditions for developing their emotional stability, self-confidence, and self-regulation abilities in the conditions of high competitive tension.

This study consists of three chapters, each of which is dedicated to a specific aspect of psychological resilience development in swimmers and the role of the coach in developing it.

The first chapter examines the theoretical foundations of psychological resilience in sports. It analyzes key concepts of stress resistance, cognitive-behavioral approaches to stress management, and self-regulation models under high competitive pressure. Special focus is directed at the specificity of swimming as a sport, which requires special demands upon the emotional well-being of the sportsmen. The chapter delineates important psychological determinants impacting the resistance of swimmers to stress like personality, experience in competitions, parameters of the process of training, and environmental parameters.

The second chapter explores modern coaching methods aimed at developing psychological resilience in swimmers. Various stress management methods are explored, including cognitive-behavioral therapy, visualization, mindfulness, breathing, and meditative methods. The emotional intelligence of the coach and how it influences the emotional states of athletes is also examined. Particular emphasis is placed on methods for developing self-confidence, enhancing resistance to stress during hard training, and resisting competitive pressure.

The third chapter presents applied methods and practical tools for fostering psychological resilience in swimmers. It addresses diagnostic methods for assessing the emotional state of athletes, methods for measuring anxiety and stress coping capacity, and individualized psychological conditioning programs. Methods of enhancing athletes’ motivation are described, along with training exercises and suggestions for applying them in practice.

Thus, this study presents a systematic coaching model aimed at developing swimmers’ stress resilience. The proposed methods can be adapted to different levels of athlete preparation and applied within both individual and team-based training approaches.

Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of developing psychological resilience in athletes

1.1. Psychological resilience as a complex phenomenon: key models and approaches

In relation to the high demands of modern sports, psychological resilience is a crucial factor that ensures the capacity of an athlete to perform under pressure and in competitive situations. Recent developments in sports pedagogy and sports psychology confirm that achievement in a sportsperson is not solely dependent on physical fitness and skill but also on the ability to control concentration, emotional states, and motivation levels even in contexts of high uncertainty and competition pressure [4, 5].In sports such as swimming, mental toughness assumes even greater significance since the sportsperson is competing alone, in a closely controlled competitive environment, and needs to be at the highest level of concentration for a prolonged length of time.

Psychological resilience is a multifaceted integrative personality trait with cognitive, emotional, and behavioral facets that allows a person to maintain performance, emotional stability, and control of the situation in the face of stress. The phenomenon is generally examined within the scientific literature within the framework of various theoretical perspectives, including psychological adaptation theory, cognitive-behavioral theory, and stress regulation theories. These theories examine the stress resistance processes, including coping, cognitive restructuring, and emotional regulation.

The theory of psychological adaptation (Selye) defines stress as a nonspecific response of the body to external or internal demands, identifying three key stages of adaptation: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (fig. 1).

Figure 1. Stages of stress adaptation according to H. Selye

On this basis, the body first employs its resources to combat the stressor (alarm stage), subsequently attempts to equalize physiological and psychological levels to maintain effective functioning (stage of resistance). However, with prolonged or excess exposure to the stress factor, it may go into a state of exhaustion with reduced adaptive capacity, physical and emotional burnout [6]. Psychologically, stress adaptation is a matter of learning tolerance of uncertainty, self-regulatory capacities, and coping abilities that allow people to remain productive even in the face of psycho-emotional stress.

This theory heavily emphasizes a model of adaptation with resources where physical, cognitive, and emotional reserve sufficiency provides the foundation of resilience. Practically, this means that one must balance the stress loads, accomplish recovery, and develop adaptive mechanisms to enhance resistance to chronic stress. The application of the theory of psychological adaptation in education and professional activities allows for the development of burnout prevention strategies, the programming of workload cycles, and the formation of individual stress management mechanisms that contribute to increased efficiency and long-term maintenance of performance.

The cognitive-behavioral theory (Lazarus & Folkman) examines psychological resilience through the interaction of cognitive processes and behavioral responses in stressful conditions [7]. The percepti¸on of a stressful situation is determined by a system of automatic thoughts that arise under the influence of previously formed beliefs. These thoughts can be either adaptive or destructive, shaping the individual’s subsequent response to a stressful stimulus (fig. 2).

Figure 2. The influence of automatic thoughts and beliefs on a person’s emotional, physiological, and behavioral reaction

When irrational beliefs are present (e.g., catastrophizing the incident, low self-esteem), automatic thoughts will yield a stress-inducing response, fostering greater anxiety and lower adaptability. In contrast, rational beliefs and positive cognitive style ensure an adaptive redefinition of the incident, control over emotional state, and reduced negative impact of stress. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral theory considers identification and restructuring automatic thoughts crucial in stress resilience development.

The stress regulation concept (J. Gross) examines the management of stress responses through the mechanism of emotional regulation, which involves consciously influencing cognitive, physiological, and behavioral reactions in response to a stressful situation (fig. 3).

Figure 3. Types of emotional stress regulation according to J. Gross

According to this concept, an individual can regulate their state by altering the perception of a stressor, their reaction to it, and selecting adaptive coping mechanisms [8]. Gross identifies two general categories of emotion regulation: antecedent-focused stress regulation (regulation of the emotional response before the stress has begun, e.g., cognitive reappraisal of the situation) and response-focused stress regulation (reduction of the strength of an already formed emotional response, e.g., relaxation or breathing exercises).

The most significant part of this concept is cognitive reappraisal, by which an individual views a stressor not as threatening but rather as a motivational stimulus or a challenge. By doing so, it minimizes the negative impact of anxiety and fear.

The theories researched – cognitive-behavioral theory, theory of psychological adaptation, and model of regulation of emotional stress – point to the importance of stress state regulation in sports. They demonstrate that successful adaptation to competition pressure relies not only on physiological factors but also on the extent to which a sportsman can consciously manage his/her response, modify the perception of stressful experience, and use effective coping strategies.

The other essential psychological resilience characteristic of the athlete includes his ability to self-regulate, including states of emotions management, anxiety and stress management reactions, and adapting to different competitive situations. Self-regulation is particularly important in swimming since swimmers must maintain high levels of concentration and psychophysiological readiness under rigorous competitive pressure [9]. Competitors who have good self-regulation are found to have more stable performance, are less susceptible to pre-competition anxiety, and recover more quickly after poor performances.

Together with self-regulation, an important component of psychological resilience is resistance to stress – the ability of an athlete to function under heavy psycho-emotional load. It is characterized by the correspondence between subjective demands of the situation and the resources the individual possesses. In sports, particularly in swimming, this correspondence is highly significant since the players are not only required to endure physical stress but also be prepared mentally to face adversity.

But still another crucial component of psychological resilience is the degree of cognitive control – the ability of an athlete to manage his thoughts, focus on the most crucial performance characteristics, and remain out of the damage inflicted by self-destructive thinking. In swimming, where competition occurs without haptic and vocal feedback, cognitive control is responsible for sustaining the best possible activity level, timely decision-making, and efficient energy resource allocation. People with a high level of cognitive control are less susceptible to a “slowing effect” in response to stress stimuli and are more effective when performing complex activities.

Psychological resilience in sports, thus, is a multi-level and intricate construct embracing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes that enable the sportspersons to adapt to stressors. In swimming, this question is particularly topical, for the sport is characterized by high self-regulation, stress tolerance, and cognitive control.

There are numerous conceptual approaches to psychological research on the phenomenon of psychological resilience in the scientific literature, each of which interprets this process within the system of different theoretical and methodological paradigms. Psychological resilience is considered by scientific schools to be a complex construct that includes cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms of adaptation to stressors.

The most structured concepts include the cognitive-behavioral model of stress resilience, the biopsychosocial model, and the psychoregulation model, each of which explains the personality adaptation mechanisms to stress from different theoretical and methodological standpoints.

As previously mentioned, the cognitive-behavioral model of stress resilience, proposed by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman, emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal and the use of adaptive strategies in forming an effective response to stressful situations. Moving toward more comprehensive approaches, it is worth noting that the biopsychosocial model (Engel) views psychological resilience as a result of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors (fig. 4) [10].

Figure 4. Factors of psychological resilience

Biological factors are associated with genetic predisposition to stress resistance, individual characteristics of the nervous system, and the level of physical fitness. They determine the body’s fundamental ability to mobilize under stress, the recovery rate after exertion, and the physiological mechanisms of self-regulation. Psychological resilience formation relies mostly on innate characteristics of the nervous system, such as excitability level, lability, and information processing speed.

Psychological factors entail individual self-regulation competencies, motivation levels, personality, and cognitive styles. They establish the emotional regulation, stress tolerance, and adjustment to uncertainty of a sports person. Players with greater intrinsic motivation and greater ability for cognitive restructuring and reflection show more stable performance under pressure in competition. Psychological training is geared towards developing conscious coping abilities, pre-competition nervousness management, and maintaining self-confidence.

Social factors are linked to the external environment in which an athlete develops. Support from the coach, family, team, and sports community plays a crucial role. Cooperation among team members, the proper coaching style, and a good microclimate are the stimuli for stress resilience and higher self-esteem. In contrast, too much pressure from the coach or assertive criticism can lead to heightened anxiety and emotional exhaustion. Social determinants also include the role of sports culture, club or federation custom, that influence an athlete’s preparedness to overcome a difficult situation and view stressful situations.

Modern research in the field of sports psychology also emphasizes the psychoregulation model proposed by Y. Hanin [11]. According to this model, each athlete has an Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF), within which they demonstrate their best performance (fig. 5).

Figure 5. Individual zone of optimal functioning

This model suggests that each athlete has a unique level of arousal at which they perform at their best.

The horizontal axis represents the arousal level, ranging from low to high. The vertical axis categorizes athletes into three groups based on their IZOF:

• Athlete 1 (low IZOF) – athletes with a low optimal arousal level, who perform best at low activation levels. When their arousal level is high, their performance declines.

• Athlete 2 (moderate IZOF) – athletes with a moderate arousal level, who require a medium activation level to achieve optimal performance.

• Athlete 3 (high IZOF) – athletes for whom a high arousal level is optimal, while low activation leads to a decline in performance.

The red zones on the diagram represent the range of optimal functioning for each athlete. They indicate that the ideal arousal level for peak performance varies among athletes.

In this model, self-regulation of emotional states is the most significant feature. A player must be able to control the level of arousal so that he or she remains in their individual zone of best functioning. As illustration, low IZOF athletes would use relaxation and breathing capabilities to avoid being too highly aroused, and high IZOF athletes would respond positively to stimuli that arouse, like warm-up exercises using dynamics and methods increasing energy for readying the requisite level of competitiveness and motivation. This model highlights the importance of a personalized approach to managing emotional states and emphasizes individual differences in the optimal arousal level required to achieve peak athletic performance.

Swimming is an individual sport with particular demands on the psychophysiological status of an athlete [12]. As stated earlier, unlike game sports and team sports where players influence one another and modify their action under fluctuating conditions, swimming is a solo and cyclical activity. This influences the mode of psychological tension in competition and training and calls for a considerable amount of self-regulation, stress resistance, and cognitive regulation.

One of the most significant psychological determinants of success in a swimmer is the ability to concentrate and to manage attention. Swimming requires exact control of the technique of movement, coordination, and rhythmic organization of strokes, which calls for selective attention – the ability to focus on what is important and to disregard what is unimportant in a way that maintains concentration on tactical and technical aspects of performance. Since sensory isolation occurs in the water medium, where the swimmer has minimal exposure to audiovisual information, there has to be high internal concentration and body sensitivity.

The other important factor is emotional regulation and stress resilience. Like in any other sport, swimming is also associated with serious psychological stress, such as competitive anxiety, necessity to strictly adhere to time frames, and maximal physical effort. Nevertheless, unlike team sports athletes, who can adjust to extrinsic conditions and change their strategy in the process of competition, a swimmer’s performance is based on pre-programmed motor activity. This elevates the role of pre-competition psychological preparation. A sportsman ought to develop an optimal level of activation in advance, avoiding both over-arousal, as a result of which an individual may make mistakes at the start, and under-mobilization, when the reaction and movement force speed reduce.

The psychology of the process of training, which is characterized by intensive monotony and recurring movements, also exerts a strong influence on the psychological state of swimmers. It may cause intellectual and emotional fatigue, reduced motivation, and an increased level of psychological burnout. Therefore, the development of intrinsic motivation is highly significant, both for achievement of competition success and for an understanding of the importance of the process of training as such. The aquatic environment has certain circumstances where the sportspersons undergo bodily discomfort, hypoxia, and proprioceptive sensitivity change and hence need to manage their physiological and affective responses in the right manner.

The psychological aspect of competition preparation must be given a special emphasis since not only must the athlete get into best physical shape but also mentally practice how to deal with stress, rehearse successful performances, and reach the optimal confidence level. Compared to team sports, where strategy can be adjusted during the game, swimming contains a considerable psychological aspect, under which the players can practice in advance their order of operation and reduce uncertainty before the event begins.

Hence, psychological resilience in sport, including swimming, is a complex, multi-level process of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral adaptation strategies to stressors. Its emergence is conditioned by a cluster of biological, psychological, and social factors. Current scientific theories, such as cognitive-behavioral theory of stress resistance, theory of psychological adaptation, the theory of stress regulation, and the IZOF model of psychoregulation, explain mechanisms of stress resistance for formation in sportsmen, with special focus on cognitive appraisal of stress, self-strategies of stress coping, and emotional regulation.

Psychological resilience is especially important in swimming due to high sensory isolation, the necessity to precisely control technique and movement rhythm, and strong physical and psychological tension. One of the most important factors is emotional regulation, enabling sportsmen and women to achieve the optimal level of activation and stress acclimatization at competitions. Competition preparation includes learning mental techniques for anxiety regulation, effective visualization of performance, and self-confidence enhancers.

Psychological resilience development in swimmers requires an integrated training system that unites physiological and technical training with intensive cognitive self-regulation skills development. This helps athletes effectively cope with competitive pressure, retain concentration, and maintain high motivational levels throughout all stages of their sporting life.

1.2. Factors influencing an athlete’s psychological resilience

An athlete’s psychological resilience is a complex integrative phenomenon shaped by multiple factors, with personality traits, physiological characteristics, and the influence of the social environment playing a key role. This includes interactions with the coach, parents, and team. Psychological resilience results from the interaction between internal psychophysiological resources and external conditions established during an athlete’s training process.

Its development is determined not only by individual characteristics of the nervous system, temperament, and self-regulation strategies but also by the nature of social support, the level of a coach’s expectations, the type of feedback provided, and the emotional climate within the sports environment.

1.2.1. Physiological and personality characteristics

The development of psychological resilience largely depends on an athlete’s innate physiological traits. According to the biopsychological model proposed within the framework of neuropsychological research, key factors influencing stress resistance include the type of nervous system, the level of activation of cortical and subcortical structures, and biochemical processes responsible for regulating emotions and responses to stress [13].

Different athletes exhibit varying levels of tolerance to stress loads, which are determined by individual characteristics of the central and autonomic nervous systems, hormonal profile (levels of cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline), and the speed of recovery processes (table 1) [14].

Table 1. Physiological factors of stress resilience

Athletes have varying tolerance to stress loads, which is determined by individual characteristics of the central and autonomic nervous systems, hormonal profile (levels of cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline), and the speed of recovery processes.

These physiological factors also affect the athlete’s ability to maintain performance under continuous physical and emotional stress. Accurate profiling of these parameters facilitates enhanced individualization of training and adaptation tracking. Emotional regulation mechanisms and cognitive control are also critical in maintaining stability under competition.

Different sports impose specific demands on an athlete’s psychophysiological characteristics. Therefore, temperament largely determines predisposition to certain disciplines, influencing concentration ability, stress resilience, and motivation levels (table 2) [15].

Table 2. The influence of temperament on predisposition to sports

Thus, temperament plays a significant role in the adaptation of an athlete to sports competition, stress resistance, concentration capacity, and performance level in severe conditions. Choosing a sport corresponding to the psychological characteristics of an individual optimizes the process of training, reduces psycho-emotional stress, and enhances athletic performance.

Additionally, the degree of anxiety, emotional lability, and cognitive capabilities also matters. Increased anxiety exerts a detrimental effect on the athlete’s concentration potential, stress-based decision-making ability, and self-regulation during competitions. Good cognitive abilities in reappraisal of stress-inducing situations, self-regulation, and awareness of emotional response, in contrast, are sound indicators of adaptation in sport.

According to a study [16] conducted among 273 athletes (aged 12 to 34, selected through random sampling), a significant relationship was identified between anxiety, self-confidence, and concentration. The analysis revealed four key factors influencing stress resilience: cognitive anxiety (24.83% of total variance), somatic anxiety (11.86%), self-confidence (15.49%), and concentration (11.05%). It was found that athletes with high levels of cognitive anxiety more frequently exhibited decreased concentration and struggled more with stress. At the same time, self-confidence served as a protective factor: athletes with higher self-confidence levels had significantly lower anxiety and better concentration.

Based on the Mann – Whitney U test, a significant gender difference was found in cognitive indicators, self-confidence, and concentration. Women experienced higher cognitive anxiety (11.67 ± 3.97 vs. 9.26 ± 3.23 in men), while men demonstrated higher self-confidence (19.54 ± 3.08 vs. 17.47 ± 3.74 in women).

The study verified that the well-documented cognitive reappraisal skill of stressful events, self-regulation, and familiarity with emotional responses are key to the successful adaptation of athletes. Athletes who employed cognitive self-regulation strategies on a regular basis (reframing, attention control, success visualization) possessed 23% higher rates of concentration during competitions and 17% reduced anxiety levels compared to the control group. Particular stress management instruction and self-esteem skills contribute to enhance enhanced sporting performance and resilience to stress in pressure situations.

Physiological characteristics, including some level of physical fitness, rate of recovery, and hardness, also have an important role to play in psychological resilience in sport. Studies affirm that fitter athletes exhibit more stable emotion regulation, which relates to the capacity of the body to adapt against stress and smaller biochemical reaction to stress.

A review of scientific studies [17] confirmed that regular physical activity reduces cortisol levels by an average of 0,37 standard deviations. This influence indicates a moderate but statistically significant decrease of the stress hormone, which results in reduced psycho-emotional tension. The meta-analysis included 10 RCT with a sample of 756 individuals, predominantly women (90%). Various methods of cortisol measurement were used in the studies (saliva, blood), but regardless of the method, intervention groups showed a significant decrease in hormone levels in comparison with control groups.

Thus, psychological resilience of a sportsman is largely characterized by his or her physiological characteristics, degree of physical preparedness, and endogenous nervous system characteristics forming a foundation for adaptive self-regulation mechanisms during severe physical and mental stress. Besides personal biological characteristics, social conditions engage in stress resistance, e.g., communication with coaches, team members, and parents.

1.2.2. The influence of the social environment on an athlete’s psychological resilience

A sportsperson’s psychological resilience is not just determined by individual and physiological factors but also through social encounters with the environment they are exposed to during training and competition. Among the social determinants of stress resilience, family support and the sporting environment play a very crucial role.

Family support is a key to the formation of motivation, self-confidence, and coping with problems [18]. Parents affect the perception of stressful experience by an athlete, his/her attitude towards wins and losses, level of self-confidence, and resistance to failure.

In sports psychology, three main models of parental influence on the development of stress resilience in young athletes have been identified (fig. 6).

Figure 6. Main models of parental influence

The emotionally detached model is one in which parents are least involved in the sporting life of a child. Different from the controlling or supportive styles, where there is a parental active involvement in the sporting life of a child through organizational or emotional support, this model is one in which parents either completely avoid the training process or do not care about the failures and achievements of the young athlete. Thereby, the kid develops some of the psychological issues that hinder their motivation, self-esteem, and ability to deal with stressful events [19].

Distantness has a number of its dire outcomes involving loss of internal motivation and external motivation. Non-reinforcement or lack of validation by the parents towards the efforts of the child denies a long-term belief that sports are worthwhile to be engaged in. Validation from elsewhere being absent, the child’s practice interest may decrease as they no longer feel their labor to be recognized and cherished by others. This has a specific impact on intrinsic motivation, which is of vital significance in sports as it decides the athlete’s capacity to continue training and overcome obstacles even in the absence of instant success.

Decreasing self-confidence is another key feature. One of the greatest influences on positive self and belief in ability is the support of parents. If parents are not interested in such sporting achievement by their child, then the child will begin questioning the importance of such achievement, therefore doing away with self-confidence and lower confidence in their capability. Lack of sufficient positive reinforcement compromises the athlete’s belief of competence, something which is very vital during pressurizing situations like competition where there needs to be high self-efficacy.

Additionally, kids raised in a culture of remote parental involvement are prone to struggle with overcoming stressful experiences. Unlike kids whose parents take an active role in helping them learn coping strategies, these athletes must look after themselves when they encounter anxiety, mood swings, and disappointment. The absence of positive conversations about failures and support during difficult moments reduces a child’s resilience in the face of psychological stress.

Another negative consequence is the feeling of emotional isolation and a decrease in attachment levels. Parents who have limited interest in their child’s sporting career can create a sense of emotional distance, which can lead to lower overall emotional resilience and self-regulation capacity. Research in sports psychology indicates that children who receive little emotional support from parents are more likely to experience frustration, anxiety, and feeling insignificant, which can influence both sporting performance and overall psychological well-being [20, 21].

Thus, a model of remote parental involvement in sport can bring about several negative consequences, including reduced motivation, self-esteem, and resistance to stress. To prevent these consequences, parents, even if they are not interested in their child’s sport, should provide at least minimal support, recognize achievements, help them overcome failures, and encourage independence in attaining their sporting objectives.

The controlling model is characterized by parental over-control in which the parents will seek to manage their child’s participation in sport in its entire form, becoming the primary organizers of training and competition. Parents employing this model are typically over-concerned with the end result of competition, are single-mindedly outcome-oriented, achievement-focussed, and place high expectations and strict success criteria. This parenting style has various psychological consequences, all of which reduce the stress resilience and well-being of young athletes.

One of the most pronounced effects of this overprotective model is increased pre-competition anxiety. Children under constant parental pressure experience significant worry before competitions, perceiving them not as an opportunity to demonstrate their abilities but as a test where failure could lead to disappointment from their parents. This results in cognitive overload, the development of irrational beliefs (“If I lose, I will no longer be supported”, “My mistakes are unacceptable”), and reduced self-confidence.

Furthermore, overprotection lowers an athlete’s level of independence and self-regulation. Parents who wish to direct every action of their child deprive them of decision-making, and as a result, they become less capable of dealing with stressful situations. In competitive situations where adaptability is a requirement, quick response, and coping with ambiguity, these players falter since they are accustomed to relying on external direction and instruction.

Another negative consequence of overprotection is the development of dependence on external evaluation. An athlete raised in an environment of constant control and high expectations begins to perceive success not as a personal achievement but as a way to fulfill their parents’ ambitions. As a result, their motivation becomes primarily external (extrinsic motivation) – they strive not for self-realization but for praise and approval. In cases of failure, such children experience deep disappointment, guilt, and a loss of motivation for further training.

Thus, the overprotective parental style in sport generates psychological barriers, not allowing for the building of stress resilience. To minimize its negative influence, it is required to redistribute the responsibility for success and failure, promote the development of intrinsically motivated behavior, and build self-confidence in athletes that is independent of external evaluation.

Supporting parental model assumes an active participation of parents in the sport activity of a child in the form of genuine interest in their successes, moral support, and reinforcement of a healthy relationship with training and competition. They do not promote outcomes but create an environment for success and failure so that the child can realize them as a process of development and living. They favor initiative, autonomy, and efforts towards self-actualization, thereby promoting intrinsic motivation, which is of central concern in long-term sport participation maintenance.

In this approach, the child is praised in failure and develop confidence through positive reinforcement of progress and effort. Interestingly, parents do not necessarily praise success but instead praise the effort that has been invested in achieving results, thus eradicating fear of failure. This approach allows the athlete to build psychological toughness, their stress tolerance is increased, and competition-induced anxiety is reduced. Besides, the supportive parenting model creates a warm emotional atmosphere, enriches the feeling of security and trust, which is crucial for a child’s self-confidence development and the ability to self-regulate.

Interaction in this model also contributes to the development of positive coping strategies for stress. Athletes who have parental support more successfully utilize cognitive and behavioral mechanisms for overcoming setbacks, adjust to high workloads with greater ease, and maintain their emotional stability even under the circumstances of high competitiveness. Parents adhering to this style not only serve as a source of emotional stability but also as a guiding force for the development of a mature and conscious attitude towards sports.

The most effective parenting style in building psychological resilience is the supportive style, whereby the parents help the athlete cope with adversity but allow the athlete decision-making autonomy and emotional independence from others.

The sports environment, including the team, training partners, and peers, has a significant impact on emotional regulation, motivation levels, and an athlete’s ability to adapt to stressful situations [22]. In sports groups, a specific social atmosphere is formed, which can either contribute to the development of stress resilience or, conversely, increase levels of anxiety and tension (fig. 7).

Figure 7. The influence of the team on an athlete’s psychological resilience

Social support, in the form of perceived togetherness in the team, harmonious relations with the team members, and support from peers, is most critical to reduce the levels of anxiety and hardiness formation. In a team, after a sportsperson is emotionally supported and viewed as being trusted by others, supportive environment is built to develop self-confidence, effort drive to surmount the failures, and positive attitude towards failure. Positive group climate and mutual understanding lower competitive tension and lower negative response to stressful conditions.

The competitive environment, in turn, can either promote an athlete’s psychological growth or lead to emotional exhaustion, depending on the level of competition and the nature of interpersonal interactions. A positive competitive atmosphere provokes athletes to self-develop, achieve self-regulation skills, and be goal-oriented. However, exaggerated intensification of competitive pressure, generating conflicts, interpersonal tension, and constant comparison with others, can reduce self-confidence, induce anxiety, and hinder successful recovery after failure. To provide the optimal level of motivation, it is necessary that teams adopt clear principles of competitive interaction, eliminating aggressive competition and fostering respect and mutual support for athletes.

Leadership within the team also plays a crucial role in shaping psychological resilience. The influence of high self-regulation, stress resistance, and confidence of master athletes has a major impact on the psychological state of less competent athletes. Such models allow less competent athletes to build healthy coping strategies, improve self-esteem, and improve intrinsic motivation.

Thus, team climate exerts a significant influence on the psychological resilience of an athlete. A balanced combination of social support, positive competitive climate, and effective leadership assists in strengthening psychological flexibility, creating self-confidence, and developing stable mechanisms of self-regulation ensuring high-level sporting performance.

1.3. The role of the coach in developing psychological resilience

The coach has a great impact on the psychological resilience of an athlete since they determine training strategy, the target of performance, and form the attitude of an athlete toward breakthrough. The impact reaches the physical training itself and even more significantly reaches the emotional field of athletes, to their stress resistance and motivational skills [23]. The relationship between the coach and athletes, as well as the style of the coach, also affects the psychological atmosphere in the team and can enhance or destroy stress resilience.

An athlete’s psychological steadiness to a large degree rely on the order and climate of the training process. The optimum conditions are found by coaching strategy combining high requirements with support, uniting disciplined training with building athlete autonomy. One of the most important things is the coaching leadership, not only controlling the training process, but also creating stable motivational orientation, self-reliance, and emotional regulation skills. In a best-case model of leadership, the coach not only supports task achievement but also helps athletes learn cognitive coping skills for stress management, reducing pre-competition anxiety, and improving adaptability.

Different coaching styles have varying effects on an athlete’s psychological resilience. Sports psychology identifies several key coaching behavior models, which differ in their level of control, degree of support, and the extent to which athletes participate in decision-making (table 3).

Table 3. The influence of coaching leadership models on an athlete’s stress resilience

The effective work of a coach is not only aimed at the formation of physical and technical skills but also at the psychological preparation of sportsmen to deal with stressful situations. This is done by applying cognitive-behavioral correction methods, training in coping skills, and the development of self-regulation mechanisms. The coach must not only transfer demands and control but also create conditions for the formation of self-confidence, stable motivation, and emotional regulation skills.

In a study [24], in which the perceptions of coaches’ leadership by athletes in championship squads were studied, it was found that the most important aspects of coaching that contribute to the development of stress resilience are instruction and training (M = 3.96, SD = 0.63), democratic behavior (M = 3.61, SD = 0.79), and positive feedback (M = 3.49, SD = 0.71). These types of leadership assist in the development of self-control and confidence among sportsmen, particularly in tense competitive situations. Autocratic coaching behavior (M = 2.38, SD = 0.68), however, was scored by sportsmen as significantly lower, which indicates the inefficacy of a controlling style of management in developing psychological resilience.

Results of the Mann-Whitney U test showed that female athletes rated coaching leadership higher than male athletes (U = 5958.500, p <0.05), and team sport athletes perceived greater support from coaches compared to individual sport athletes (U = 4947.00, p <0.05). In addition, women team players emphasized more frequently the importance of democratic behavior of the coach, support from society, and positive feedback, whereas male individual players valued order and control more. As it is remarkable, athletes’ age could not influence the perception of leadership of coaches, which testifies to the high stability of preference across all phases of sports training.

A total of 236 young student-athletes participated in the study, representing championship teams in basketball, handball, volleyball, futsal, badminton, wrestling, and swimming. Data collection was conducted using a questionnaire based on Chelladurai and Saleh’s (1980) Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS), designed to assess athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ leadership styles. The questionnaire comprised 40 items that were presented in five subscales: training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback. Every statement was marked by the respondents on a five-point Likert scale (1 – “never” to 5 – “always”).

During this study, M (mean value) was used to identify how often athletes rated the frequency of some of the coaching leadership attributes, and SD (standard deviation) indicated the degree of variation in these ratings. To compare differences in independent groups (e.g., sport type or gender), the Mann-Whitney U test was used, which allowed identification of statistically significant differences in the perception of coaching leadership behavior.

These findings highlight the most effective forms of coaching interventions for building resilience to stress are guided direction, emotional support, and granting the athletes some autonomy. Coaches must not only provide technical directions but also set a positive psychological climate that helps build confidence and adaptive coping during pressure.

The ability of a coach to create a supportive environment where an athlete feels confident and motivated is of particular importance. There are four main components of a coach’s social support, each playing a crucial role in the athlete’s preparation process and the development of psychological resilience (fig. 8).

Figure 8. Components of coach’s social support

Appraisal assistance is communicated through constructive criticism, which allows sportsmen to objectively measure their performance, become aware of their progress, and coordinate their future training. Constructive evaluation should not merely identify mistakes but also emphasize successful periods of performance to reinforce the player’s confidence in their competence. Feedback should be immediate, objective, and positive in nature rather than negative. For example, a coach may apply the sandwich technique, where feedback is provided in the sequence of first pointing out the athlete’s strengths, then areas of improvement, and finally, proposals for correction. In so doing, the stress level is reduced, and the athletes can perceive criticism as an incentive to improve and not as a factor to ruin their confidence.

The emotional support of coaches can best be depicted by empathy, comprehension, and encouragement, wherever necessary for the alleviation of anxiety among athletes. If a coach worries about his/her players’ welfare, morally sides with them during adversity, and motivates them not only to play exceptionally but also to grow on an individual level, it provides self-assurance to athletes. It is especially necessary for coaches to assist sportsmen in dealing with failures, portraying them as part of perfection, but not as a fault on their part. The presence of the coach lowers the risk of emotional burnout and provides high sports involvement.

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