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         ,       .        , ,   ,   ,     .       ,        .       , ,       蠖 堖  .      ,    :  ,    ,        ;     .         ,    ,      ,   .  ,      .    1980-       ,      ,      -.        ,             , ,   .             .        ,      ,   .       ,     ,  2006  ,            ,   ,       .  ,  ,     . ,     ,   ,           .   堖   , - , .

,  -    .            .    XIX      蠖  .        .      ,    , , , .     .             .     ,  ,      [] .  1984,     ,      蠖             .  ,   , ,       ()  ,  .   -       - ,       ,       .        ,     .       ,             .   ,     . ,     ,   1200    ,        .    ,  ,   ,  .      ,       ,      ,      . Ѡ       .     .                 .           - .    ,   ,    ,   ,     - ? .       ,   ,    堖     , ,        .

    .     ,       ,     .       ,      ,   XX XXI.         ,     . Ѡ      ,      ,           .          [1 - modernity (    ) ,       ,   ,  . ,      , ,      ,    , ,      ,    , , ,  ..   ..]    .        .      ;         ;   ;    .    ,   ,      .      .        .     ,      ,  ,  .         ,    ,          , , , , - (),  .     ,      .      . Ƞ ,    ()      .      ,     .            .  ,      ,  ,           . ʠ  ,          XVIII. ,    ,    ,   .     ,  . ,      ,      ,  ,   ,     .








   ,    .     , ꠫  蠫 ,        .      ,              㠖     .     Π       ,  . Ѡ           : , ,  .        ,     (, , , , ),    .        ,   XVIII     .      ,  ,       ,   ,   . , XX ,     ,      .     ,        ,   .   ,  ,      , ,   XX    .       .          ,      ,          . Ƞ         . Ѡ      ,    ,          .

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   ,          .     ,        .          ,      .   XVIII XIX  .      ,     .            XVII堖         .    -      .       ,  ,            .   ,     .     -   .  XX    ,     ,   [2 - Development (.) ,      .     ,    ,     ,    ,    (     ,   ,   , ).    蠫 .].       .        , , ,  蠖  ,  ,   .      ,         ;         .

,    ,      ,    .  ,       , , , , ,  蠖  XX,    .      ,       . ʠ,  XVI    XXI,        ,  XVIII.        蠖     .








          .   ,         ,      , .      .       ( , ,   )  ,    .   XVIII      .  XIX,            ,  .      ,      .           .  頖  ,        ,      .          .         ,   ,            .      ,   .  XX  ,      , ,              . ,   ,            .              ,   ,        .       ,      [3 -     .     ,      ,             .].  ,           .

頖   .       ,   , ,  頖  ,     .      1912  ,       .   ,         ,       .  ,      ,      (206. .. 24. ..)       [1 - Information Office ofthe State Council, "History andDevelopment ofXinjiang," May26, 2003, http://en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526117240.shtml.         ,     2019,               (Information Office ofthe State Council, "Historical Matters Concerning Xinjiang," July22, 2019, http://english.scio.gov.cn/2019-07/22/content_75017992_6.htm (http://english.scio.gov.cn/2019-07/22/content_75017992_6.htm)).].        ,      ()    .            ,       :        .           ,    -  .  ,    ,     ,     ,      ,          .      ,    . ,       ,    ,         .      ,   ,       .            ().     ,        ,        ,      .   (618907.)      .               1750- .        ,    .      XVIII    .       .

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               .          ,      .       ࠖ   ,   .        堖  4617?  , 8640?  ,     , 2645   [2 -           .    ,          .              :       (Daniel Garcia-Castellanos andUmberto Lombardo, "Poles ofInaccessibility: ACalculation Algorithm forthe Remotest Places onEarth", Scottish Geographical Journal 123 [2007]: 227233).].   ,   , , , .         ,        .       ,  ,      ,  . ( 堖   ,    ,  ,    .)         ,       .    ,  ,    .      .   ,       .      ,  堖 .        ,      .  ,   90 ,   (.0.1  0.2).






:      ,    ,  2018 (United Nations, United Nations Demographic Yearbook 2018 [NewYork: United Nations, 2019], 693);    2018 (China Statistical Yearbook 2019 [Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2019], table 26)








     ,     ,      ,       . ,      ,   ,     (1990-     -).       (,    ). ,  ,    ,    .      (   ,  ).      ( ),     ().           .         (-젖  ),          (, 蠫, ,  )    .      .  ,     ,  ,    ,       .    ,     ,       .

   ꠖ  -       . -    ,    ,     . Ѡ-   ,    ,     ,  - (-  )  .   ,    .  , -        .   ,   . ʠ-    ,    .   -  ,   ,      : - , i ,    . ʠ     , ,     ,      .        -- ( ),   ,    .    ,      ,        . ?     ,      - (  )  ,  ,    ,  . ʠ     ,    ,   XVIII. (       ,    .)       .        .      -,          .         . ?         -.    ,    .      (,  -),   .       . ʠ   , ,      ().      ,  155   .     ,        .      ,       , ,            ,     ( ) .        -: 頖    ,   ;  ,   ;     .             .           .

 ,  -    ,         ,       젖 , .       .     ,  ,      .  XIX,   ,       . ,     ,    ,      .    ,    ,           .    ,     ,  ?        , ,   ,   ࠖ     ࠖ 1930-    .

        ,      .     ,     ,    .     .   ,     ,     .       ,    [h] (  )   []; ,      j,     [],   .     ,   ,   :   , 젖 .                 (, , ),      (, , ).         ,   - .     1920- ,        ,     .    1920-     ,       ,  ,      .

Ƞ     .  (   )           ,     .      ,        ,  1865. Ѡ1865 1924     ,   ,       .  XIX  XX  ,      , , , , ,       -.   XX          . Ƞ   ,    ,     ,    ,   ,      .  ,   , .         ,     .   ࠖ     .        .             .      ,         ,  .




1

   


                (, ,  ).   蠖    ,   ,    .      ,     蠖     ,   (, ,    )      .              .          ,  .            .       ,      ,    .        ,  , ,      .     ,  .       ,  ,    ,  ( 堖 ).  ,       ,       .      ,   .     ,    .       -,       .      XVIII,          ,      ,   .








      . ,  ,   ,       ,  .       .     , ,           ( ,    )  .         ,       .     200 (III. .. I. ..),        .           .  VI VII     ,   ,    .      ,    蠖       .  VIII        . ( XX    -  .)

   ,    ,      .         .   -    22001700  , ,    ,   .  539330    ,   ,   (       ).    ,      . ,     ,     ( ).  III      - ,       ,      ,     .    ,      .   ,      . ʠI         ,  .

           .  1877       ,   ,       (206. .. 220. ..)  .             ,        ,         . ,            .      .       ,   ,    ( )      . Ѡ          .    ,           .         ,     [3 - James A. Millward, TheSilk Road: AVery Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).].         .

    ,    ,   ,    . ?        ,      .     ,       .      ,  .         .   ( ),     (.9401020),     ,      ,  .       .   ,           ,       ,  ,   -    .      .  VIII   ,      -   .       .








  VIII      .   -   VII,  ,  -,     ,      ,      ,  VIII   .  671   , 709     .         .    ?    .  751   (  )     ,     ,    .  750    ,      .

     ,     ?   ,   ,   .   IX          .       ,     .  ()      ,    ,       . -      .   ,   - (810870)   - (825892),  ,       - (. . 944)  - - (. 1197).     - (780850),    ( ,    ,  ),  --  - (. 870),      - (. . 950),      ( ), -     (  , 9801037)    - (9731050)           ,     .      ,   ,       .           .  XIII   ꠫   ;     (  ),        ,      [4 - . 'Ala-ad-Din 'Ata Malik Juvaini, TheHistory ofthe World Conqueror, trans. J. A. Boyle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 1:9798. ʠ,        . .: -. .   . ., 2004. ..].

-        ,      . ʠ IX    ,  ,     .      ,    ,      .      ,       .  ,   ,       .   ,     ,   (     ), ,        .    ,  ,     .          .       ,       (     ).      ,    ,       .       (858941),           ,   .

     .        960, , , 200000  ( )  . ʠ X -       .           ,    ;           .                .         .       ,        ,    .       XVIII  .    ,     ,      .         1420              [5 - Hafiz Abru, APersian Embassy toChina, Being anExtract from Zubdatu't Tawarikh ofHafiz Abru, trans. K. M. Mitra (Lahore, 1934; repr., NewYork: Paragon, 1970), 1215.].








       XII,          .   -   ,    1127,      -  .          .         .  -        XIII.            ,    .  1206      ()      ,   ?     .   1227      .    ,         , , ,     .  XIII ,      .

    .    ,       ,       .             ,        .     ,      ,        .   pax Mongolica,  ?     ,       .    .               .       , ,          ,     .

         .    ,              . , ,  ,   ,    .          ()       .        ,    ( , ,   )     .   , ,      ,     .     .          ,     .  ,    ,       .  1258         ,        .     , ,     ,     1279.  1260,   ,    .        堖 .       ,    1294   .         .    XIII   .   ,    ,    ,        .    ,    .    1220 c      .  ,      ,  ,   :     ,   .   ,          , ,         . ,   ,    ,       .         ,     ,  ,    .    , , ,           [6 - Juvaini, TheHistory ofthe World Conqueror, 1:104105.].             .      ,   ()    (  ),        .

      .      ,            .     , ,  , ,  ࠖ ,   ,     ,  .      ,     ,            .  1330   (13311334.)  .      , ,  ,       .   ,      ,   ,   ,     (  ).      ,     .  , 1340-        .       ( ,   ).      ,    - (13471363.)     ,   . ʠ XIV    ,  ,           .  ,         .    ,       ,     , -      .    ,  ,   ,    .        ,    .     ,  (13361405),      .

     . ʠ1370           .        ,     .  1370        (   ?? ? ),     ,  .             (   ),  ,  ,     .      .    (        )  (    1398).   1405     .       ,   蠖    ,          .       .  ,  ,    (     ),    ,    ,   XIV. ,        .  ,     -,      .  ,      ,      ,     .      ,  ,    .    ,         .         ,        .           .        XX:  ,        .

     ,          .  ,         .  XV  ⠖  ,   (  )     ,      ,  .      ,  .    ,              .      (. 1492),   (. 1535),      (. 1501).       ,       .     XI   .      (. 1077)    ( )   [4 -    , , ,       ,   .],  - (. 1102)    - (  [5 - -     ,     .])   .          , 蠖    .     .             .     ,    .      ,       .     ,      ,    ,     .     ,    ,     .   (, ,    ),    XV,         .








 XVI       ,   ,  ,    .     ,   .  1327 -  ,     .           ,    .      ,        -.       .  XV - (14281468.),  ,   ,    ,      ,  .   XV    -  200000 400000    ,        .      --   (14831530).      .     ,     ,  1857.            .

  ,     ,       .  -     .  -     ,      .  ,      .        ,     堖 ,   .       - II (15831598.),        -.      :     ,      .      ,         .  1598        蠖 .         .        ,   1240- .            .  1397      .  XVI       .  1547     IV ()   ,      ,             .  1552      .    ,       ,     .           ,    -  ,  .      .        ,  ( ,   )    .       .

   - .           .     .           ,      ,   蠖  ,  .         :     ,     ,    ,   .

 , XVII      ,   .   ,     ,    .          . ʠ XVIII        , ,      :   ( ),   ( )  ( ).   ,    ,   .       .      ,      ,     .    ()   ,    ,      .         .

         .    , ,      :          .     ,    ,  ,       . Ӡ      ,     ,  ,    -[7 - Scott C. Levi, TheBukharan Crisis: AConnected History of18th-Century Central Asia (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2020), chap. 3; Erica Monahan, TheMerchants ofSiberia: Trade inEarly Modern Eurasia (Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press, 2016).].         .    .    IX,              .           XVIII.       ,  ,     1368,  ,   ,   .        ,   .








  ,    .  ,   ,  , 頖 .          ,    , ,      (   ).  XV       . 젖   (     ):         ()  ().   :      ()  ,       .          .

      ,      (),       .         . ʠXV        ,   .   ()   ,   ,      .           .  ,    (. 1389),   .       .      ,    (     ),      蠖   .

ʠ XVI  ,      ,  .       .    ,   ,     .             .          ,   ,   ,         .    ,   ,        .  - (.920955), -  ,    ,  .      ,    .       (),       . ʠ-,    ,          .      .   ,    . Ƞ    :      ,     , 蠫,   , ,    .    ,   ,     .    ,   ,  ,     ,    .     [8 - Devin DeWeese, Islamization andNative Religion inthe Golden Horde: Baba T?kles andConversion toIslam inHistorical andEpic Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 541543.]. -,   ,      .   -  ,    ,  -  .      ,   ,       . -        ,  .      ,  ,      ,       .        ,      .    120000    .    ,         [9 - Mirza Haidar Dughlat, Tarikh-i-Rashidi: AHistory ofthe Khans ofMoghulistan, inClassical Writings ofthe Medieval Islamic World: Persian Histories ofthe Mongol Dynasties, trans. Wheeler Thackston (London: I. B. Tauris, 2012), 1:6.].

 XI  - ,       ,  ,  [10 - Mahmud al-Ka?? ari, Compendium ofthe Turkic Dialects (Diwan Lu?at at-Turk), ed. Andtrans. Robert Dankoff (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Printing Office, 1982), 1:82.],         .   ,      ,    ,     .     ,     ,     ,  .  ,      ,     .  ,    ,    .    ,   ,  - ( )    .         ,     .              .

 ,       ,    ,      .         , , .           .     ,    , ,       ,  (, ) 蠖 ,      .           .








         XVIIIࠖ      ,       .     :   ,  ,   .          /:  ,    ,   .         ,      ,    .        ,      .     .       XI,  頖 XV.        , ,  ,   .     .         ,    .         ,    ,   .           -.       ,  XVIII       .  蠖  堖   ,       ,    ,   -.













     1881            ,   ,      .      蠖 ,       1870  ,     .        .        ,     XIX,           .   ,        .      ,    ,         .     .

        . ,    -,       ,  ,     .  ,    ,   ,     ,       .   ,       蠖    ,      .  ,           .  ,        ,       .




2

   


 17551759              .      XVII   .           .       ,  ,        ,       1750- .         ,       .  ,           .








       ,     . ʠ XVII       .  ,    ,   ,    .       ,        .         .           ,  -  ( ),     1580-       .   ,    - ,     .  1670-   ,      ,         .     ,  . ,          ,  -.       ,      , ,  ,    . -     ,     . ߠ   ,  .   ࠖ   .   ,      .     ,     . -   ,  ?     ,      .    , ,      ,       . -   -,  ,      [11 - Mu? ammad ? adiq Kashghari, InRemembrance ofthe Saints: Mu?ammad ?adiq Kashghari's Ta?kira-i ?Azizan, trans. David Brophy (NewYork: Columbia University Press, 2020),34.].

      ,   - 1635.      -,       ,  .       .       ,   ,        ,      ,  ?     .       .    ,     .   -  -,    .            .     ,       48000  ( ),    ,     . ,    [12 - James A. Millward, Beyond thePass: Economy, Ethnicity, andEmpire inQing Central Asia, 17591864 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,1998), 92; Henry G. Schwartz, "The Khwajas ofEastern Turkestan," Central Asiatic Journal 20 (1976): 266296.].  ,          -.

 ,      ,  .           ,       .    ,    ,     . ʠXVII    - ()           ,  ,      ,   .      .         ,   ,        .      ,    .    .     ,  -,     .  ,       ,    ()  .      ,        蠖    [13 - Alexandre Papas, Soufisme et politique entre Chine, Tibet et Turkestan: Etude sur les Khw?jas naqshband?s du Turkestan oriental (Paris: Librairie d'Amrique et d'Orient, 2005).].      1694    ,          .     ,    -,   .               ,    .      ,  ,   .       ,           ,     .       ,       .      (),     ,     ,   . Ƞ  -       .








      .     ,      頖   ,     .        .                 . ,   ,    ,         .                      .    ,      ,  ,      .     ,  1653     ,    .   ,       ,   (16771697.),  ,    .  ,  1687        . Ӡ      ,        ,    ,       .    ,                 .   ,      .          .

   - 1745    ,    .  ,   ,    1755,          ,  .        .  , ,  .      ,     .   ,  .    .    .    ,       [14 - Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: TheQing Conquest ofCentral Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press ofHarvard University Press, 2005),283.].      ,      ,    .         .      ,       .       ,   .   ,    . Ѡ ,   ,     ,        " "  -  [15 - ,285.].

       ,   ,   .    ,   ,   .      ,     .               .     ,             .   -,   (   ),      .       , -   ,        - .       ,        [16 - Laura J. Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate: APolitical History ofQing Relations with Khoqand, c. 17601860 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 2127.].

       ,       .     ,     ,           .       . ʠ ,   ,    ,             ,     .       ,    .      ,    .      .








   ,         ?            ,      ,     .     ,   , 頖   (  )   .     ,     .       ,              ,       .        ,  -       .   ,    ,     " "    ,        [17 - Millward, Beyond thePass,201.].








   -   .    -,    .         ,  ⠖ , ,     .          ,    :   [18 - Hodong Kim, Holy War inChina: TheMuslim Rebellion andState inChinese Central Asia, 18641877 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004),69.].          . Ӡ  ()    ,     ,      .         ,   .            ,        .           .

     ( ,   ,  ).      ,   ,    .      :      ,      .      - (),         (  XIX   40000,           ).  ,       ,   ,    .       30  ( 2) , , ,   2  [19 - Millward, Beyond thePass,51.].    ,          .       . Ӡ      , ,  ,         .      (  -,  ).         ,     .     ( ),     , ,  , -  .            .  堖  ,  ,  蠖    ,    -   ,    .        ,  ,       .  ,  ,    ( ) ,      - .                 [20 - Kwangmin Kim, "Profit andProtection: Emin Khwaja andthe Qing Conquest ofCentral Asia, 17591777," Journal ofAsian Studies 71 (2012): 603626; David Brophy, "The Kings ofXinjiang: Muslim Elites andthe Qing Empire," tudes orientales 25 (2008): 6990.].        .

,   ,   ,    . (      .)      ,    .      .   1777        [21 - .: Millward, Beyond thePass,133.].  -         .     ()   ().   2  (1) -      ,   ,    .    ,       .    , 蠖  -.      .    .      .     ,            .           .     ,   -         ,  ,    .      , ,   ,  .    ,  ,  . ,  -,    -,       .  ,        ,    :            .     ,    ,  .       ,  ,       .             .           .

       ,     .      ,      ,        .      , ,  ,       .     ,    .       ,   -   .          -.      - -      .          .      ,  ,   ,    .      ,    .            [22 - Brophy, "The Kings ofXinjiang," 84.].      ,    .       ,   -  ( )   ,    .       ,   -   .     ,    .      XX ,         .      ,  .          ,  ,    ,        .       ,         ,    .       .         ,         .    ,       [23 - Molla Musa Sayrami, Tarikhi ?miniy?, ed. M?h?mm?t Zunun (?r?mchi: Shinjang Kh?lq N?shriyati, 1989), 28 (see 3842 forthe legend ofthe emperors' conversion).].

          .    ,       . ,      ,             .     ,    ,     ,        .       () 1764.          .     ,       [24 - Millward, Beyond thePass, 205208.].  1764        , ,  ,   .   240   ,     ,   ,     ,    .    ,        .    .    ,  2350  ,  8000     .      .    ,    ,  .




3

  


  ,        ,  -,      .    ,       .         .             ,  -     .

   XVIII    ,   - ( ),   .     -       .        ,  .           ,  .      -  .      ,   ,    .  1706         .    -  ,       ,      XVIII;      .

     .  1723    , 蠖     ໠   :     ,       -.       -,  ,  [6 -  () ,           .          ( ),  ,     -.],       .        ,    .           ( ),          .       :   ,  , ,  ,     ,   ,     1737 1740.         .   ,  ,  80000 200000 ⠖  .     ,       .  ,   ,    .       -  .      ,     .  1747,      ,    ,    ,   .        -  .            .  ,   ,   XX[25 - Scott C. Levi, TheBukharan Crisis: AConnected History of18th-Century Central Asia (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2020).].

  -     .  ,   ,   ,      ,  .     ,    .  ,     .    ,   XIX    -- ( ),          ,  -  [26 - James Pickett, Polymaths ofIslam: Power andNetworks ofKnowledge inCentral Asia (Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press, 2020).].     ,       .     ,   ,    ,     (   ,  ),     .

       .     -,         .     ,  XIX    .  ,      .  -       ,     .

    -.        .      ,     XVIII. Ƞ        . ,    ,    ,     .     ,     ,    ,   .       ,    .  ,     1761 1821 48 ,     [27 - Toru Saguchi, "The Eastern Trade ofthe Khoqand Khanate," Memoirs ofthe Research Department ofthe Toyo Bunko, no. 24 (1965):51.].  ,           .      .           .  -                 .

     [28 - Scott C. Levi, TheRise andFall ofKhoqand, 17091876: Central Asia inthe Global Age (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2017).]. ʠ XIX     . - (17991811.),  -,    ,     ,        .    ,    ,     .         ,     ,       .       ,   .      ,      .      .

    ,    ,       .       ,       --  ,     .     ,  -  -    . ,       ,         ,    .      , - (18111822.),   ,       ,     .    -  .       ,       .       .      .       ,   .         - ( ).     ,     ,     .

   36,         .  1822    14-   ,  .            ,  .          .       ,       ( ,  ) ,     ,  .    ,       [29 - , 148149.].    - ,     ,     ,      ,         , ,     .        ,      ,    .








          XVIII XIX.         ,    1763,      . (Ӡ    .)  , ,  .     ,      .  1788     , -,   ,  .       ,       .   , ,  ,         [30 - Laura J. Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate: APolitical History ofQing Relations with Khoqand, c. 17601860 (Leiden: Brill, 2005),55.].   -   ,     .   XIX     .      ,     .

, -      .          ,        . -,  ,    .  1814      ,   300 -,  .     40005000 ,   ,    .   ,    ,  -  ,    . ,     ,  1820      .      .   ,         ,   ,    ,       .

 1826     ,     ,         .     -,   ,  ,  ,  .     ,    .       ,     ,          .     ,  ,    . ,   ,  ,       ,  .   ,    .       .    ,   ,   ,   -   .        .   ,  ,  ,   -  [31 - Hajji Mu? ammad ? akim Khan, Muntakhab al-tavarikh, trans. Scott C. Levi, inIslamic Central Asia: AnAnthology ofHistorical Sources, ed. Scott C. Levi andRonSela (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 276277.].   ,    ,   ,    . ʠ     -    .   ,      ,    .   [] ࠖ   ,    [32 - .: Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate,94.].     ,    ,  ,        ,        .     .

    .  1826/27        1827    .  ,       .   1828       2000 .   ,  ,  .        ,  ,     .       ,      . Ӡ     ,    ,   ,  ,  .      [33 - ,110.].      . ,   ,  , ,      ,        .      ( ),  ,     . ʠ1828  ,  ,  830000 [34 - Millward, Beyond thePass,59.].

Ӡ   ,         ,    堖   ,   ,          .   ,   ,     .  1820   (17921841),    ,      ,         -  ,  ,     .        ,          .      ,  ,    ,      ,  .     ?      : "  ,    "  "  ,    ".              ,           .              .  ,       ,   ,       .  ,         ,      ,   .  ,  ,    ,       ,  , ,    ,            [35 - Gong Zizhen, "Xiyu zhi xingsheng yi," inGong Zizhen, Gong Zizhen quanji (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1975), 105112. Foran English translation, see David C. Wright, "Gong Zizhen andHisEssay onthe 'Western Regions,' " inOpuscula Altaica: Essays Presented inHonor ofHenry Schwarz, ed. Edward H. Kaplan andDonald W. Whisenhunt (Bellingham: Center forEast Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 1994), 655685.]




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1


modernity (    ) ,       ,   ,  . ,      , ,      ,    , ,      ,    , , ,  ..   ..




2


Development (.) ,      .     ,    ,     ,    ,    (     ,   ,   , ).    蠫 .




3


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4


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5


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6


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1


Information Office ofthe State Council, "History andDevelopment ofXinjiang," May26, 2003, http://en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526117240.shtml.         ,     2019,               (Information Office ofthe State Council, "Historical Matters Concerning Xinjiang," July22, 2019, http://english.scio.gov.cn/2019-07/22/content_75017992_6.htm (http://english.scio.gov.cn/2019-07/22/content_75017992_6.htm)).




2


          .    ,          .              :       (Daniel Garcia-Castellanos andUmberto Lombardo, "Poles ofInaccessibility: ACalculation Algorithm forthe Remotest Places onEarth", Scottish Geographical Journal 123 [2007]: 227233).




3


James A. Millward, TheSilk Road: AVery Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).




4


. 'Ala-ad-Din 'Ata Malik Juvaini, TheHistory ofthe World Conqueror, trans. J. A. Boyle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 1:9798. ʠ,        . .: -. .   . ., 2004. ..




5


Hafiz Abru, APersian Embassy toChina, Being anExtract from Zubdatu't Tawarikh ofHafiz Abru, trans. K. M. Mitra (Lahore, 1934; repr., NewYork: Paragon, 1970), 1215.




6


Juvaini, TheHistory ofthe World Conqueror, 1:104105.




7


Scott C. Levi, TheBukharan Crisis: AConnected History of18th-Century Central Asia (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2020), chap. 3; Erica Monahan, TheMerchants ofSiberia: Trade inEarly Modern Eurasia (Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press, 2016).




8


Devin DeWeese, Islamization andNative Religion inthe Golden Horde: Baba T?kles andConversion toIslam inHistorical andEpic Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 541543.




9


Mirza Haidar Dughlat, Tarikh-i-Rashidi: AHistory ofthe Khans ofMoghulistan, inClassical Writings ofthe Medieval Islamic World: Persian Histories ofthe Mongol Dynasties, trans. Wheeler Thackston (London: I. B. Tauris, 2012), 1:6.




10


Mahmud al-Ka?? ari, Compendium ofthe Turkic Dialects (Diwan Lu?at at-Turk), ed. Andtrans. Robert Dankoff (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Printing Office, 1982), 1:82.




11


Mu? ammad ? adiq Kashghari, InRemembrance ofthe Saints: Mu?ammad ?adiq Kashghari's Ta?kira-i ?Azizan, trans. David Brophy (NewYork: Columbia University Press, 2020),34.




12


James A. Millward, Beyond thePass: Economy, Ethnicity, andEmpire inQing Central Asia, 17591864 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,1998), 92; Henry G. Schwartz, "The Khwajas ofEastern Turkestan," Central Asiatic Journal 20 (1976): 266296.




13


Alexandre Papas, Soufisme et politique entre Chine, Tibet et Turkestan: Etude sur les Khw?jas naqshband?s du Turkestan oriental (Paris: Librairie d'Amrique et d'Orient, 2005).




14


Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: TheQing Conquest ofCentral Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press ofHarvard University Press, 2005),283.




15


,285.




16


Laura J. Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate: APolitical History ofQing Relations with Khoqand, c. 17601860 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 2127.




17


Millward, Beyond thePass,201.




18


Hodong Kim, Holy War inChina: TheMuslim Rebellion andState inChinese Central Asia, 18641877 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004),69.




19


Millward, Beyond thePass,51.




20


Kwangmin Kim, "Profit andProtection: Emin Khwaja andthe Qing Conquest ofCentral Asia, 17591777," Journal ofAsian Studies 71 (2012): 603626; David Brophy, "The Kings ofXinjiang: Muslim Elites andthe Qing Empire," tudes orientales 25 (2008): 6990.




21


.: Millward, Beyond thePass,133.




22


Brophy, "The Kings ofXinjiang," 84.




23


Molla Musa Sayrami, Tarikhi ?miniy?, ed. M?h?mm?t Zunun (?r?mchi: Shinjang Kh?lq N?shriyati, 1989), 28 (see 3842 forthe legend ofthe emperors' conversion).




24


Millward, Beyond thePass, 205208.




25


Scott C. Levi, TheBukharan Crisis: AConnected History of18th-Century Central Asia (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2020).




26


James Pickett, Polymaths ofIslam: Power andNetworks ofKnowledge inCentral Asia (Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press, 2020).




27


Toru Saguchi, "The Eastern Trade ofthe Khoqand Khanate," Memoirs ofthe Research Department ofthe Toyo Bunko, no. 24 (1965):51.




28


Scott C. Levi, TheRise andFall ofKhoqand, 17091876: Central Asia inthe Global Age (Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Press, 2017).




29


, 148149.




30


Laura J. Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate: APolitical History ofQing Relations with Khoqand, c. 17601860 (Leiden: Brill, 2005),55.




31


Hajji Mu? ammad ? akim Khan, Muntakhab al-tavarikh, trans. Scott C. Levi, inIslamic Central Asia: AnAnthology ofHistorical Sources, ed. Scott C. Levi andRonSela (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 276277.




32


.: Newby, TheEmpire andthe Khanate,94.




33


,110.




34


Millward, Beyond thePass,59.




35


Gong Zizhen, "Xiyu zhi xingsheng yi," inGong Zizhen, Gong Zizhen quanji (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1975), 105112. Foran English translation, see David C. Wright, "Gong Zizhen andHisEssay onthe 'Western Regions,' " inOpuscula Altaica: Essays Presented inHonor ofHenry Schwarz, ed. Edward H. Kaplan andDonald W. Whisenhunt (Bellingham: Center forEast Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 1994), 655685.


