Machine and human intelligence
Updated research
Zero Ash

© Zero Ash, 2024

ISBN 978-5-0062-7940-7

Created with Ridero smart publishing system

Machine and human intelligence, an updated research

MHIUR 2024

Research of machine and human intelligence based on own knowledge and experiments, analysis of various sources: publications of scientific articles, posts, interviews, news updates, etc. Information for a wide audience, from the very entry level, to experts. The material is more about questions than about answers. Intelligence is an unsolved mystery of nature.

«Intelligence is a human construct to represent the ability to achieve goals.» (Michael E. Hochberg, «A Theory of Intelligences»). Simple and straightforward, but intelligence is not only humans have, and what intelligence is?

«A core function of intelligence is grounding, which is the process of connecting the natural language and abstract knowledge to the internal representation of the real world in an intelligent being, e.g., a human.» (Bing Liu,«Grounding for Artificial Intelligence»). Good point, but intelligence has many more core functions.

«Consider the space of all possible forms of intelligence, what can be called the intelligence

space.» (Paul S. Rosenbloom, «Defining and Exploring the Intelligence Space»). Interesting concept, but even to imagine such «space of all possible forms of intelligence» is close to impossible task.

«In the lone banana problem, the statistics suggested that bananas only appear in twos (or more) and so the AI could not imagine a single banana, because the data and parametric tuning that had gone on didn’t allow it to consider that approach, on average» (Daniel Hook,«The Lone Banana Problem»). No surprise, machine models can only use patterns from their training data and can’t come up with something totally new. «AGI» – did you say, give me two.

«AlphaGeometry is a neuro-symbolic system made up of a neural language model and a symbolic deduction engine, which work together to find proofs for complex geometry theorems. Akin to the idea of „thinking, fast and slow“, one system provides fast, „intuitive“ ideas, and the other, more deliberate, rational decision-making.» (Trieu Trinh and Thang Luong, «An Olympiad-level AI system for geometry»). An interesting idea, a combined approach, in addition, code generation and execution can be used.

«The artificial intelligence may share different principles from the natural intelligence, but both can inspire each other, which may call for establishing new mathematical physics foundation.» (Haiping Huang,«Eight challenges in developing theory of intelligence») – there’s a joke that goes: «if you want to figure out how it works, program it.»

«Machines will be capable, within 20 years, of doing any work that a man can do.» – wrote Herbert Simon in 1960, who won the Nobel Prize in economics and the Turing Prize in computer science.

«Every intelligence is specialized, including human intelligence. Intelligence is a collection of skills and an ability to acquire new ones quickly. It cannot be measured with a scalar quantity. No intelligence can be even close to general, which is why the phrase „Artificial General Intelligence“ makes no sense. There is no question that machines will eventually equal and surpass human intelligence in all domains. But even those systems will not have „general“ intelligence, for any reasonable definition of the word general.» (Yann LeCun). AI, AGI, etc. – is just marketing, nothing more. There are many questions in what areas and what machines can do. Computers are just tools, they have no will of their own. A model of will is possible, but it’ll be just a model. Truly autonomous systems and self-aware systems are projects of the very distant future.

«People don’t change their minds.» (Daniel Kahneman) – partially true, there are other words – «People think one thing, say the second and do the third.»

The limits of my language mean the limits of my world (Ludwig Wittgenstein). It shows that language plays a key role in everything, intelligence and language are tightly connected. To hack an intelligence, hack a language.

«My machine learning professor taught me something I’ll never forget: Always focus on the analysis, and don’t worry about the code. Copy the code. Steal it. Ask somebody to write it for you. It doesn’t matter. Coding is easy. Knowing what to code is what truly matters.» (Santiago Valdarrama). That’s what distinguishes intelligence, to understand what’s important, what you should focus on, and what you shouldn’t waste resources on.

«AI can be considered something that mimics human cognitive functions.» (Igor Ashmanov). It is not a bad definition, considering that AI has different definitions: strong, weak, general AI, etc. You can give another definition yourself, and it will have the right to exist.

«Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one learned in school.» – Albert Einstein. Yes, that’s right, knowledge and intelligence develop only in work. Unused knowledge dies and is forgotten.

«The Truth About Emotional Intelligence. For those who have it, it predicts success in many ways.» (Marc Brackett). EI is an essential part of an intelligence, perhaps even more significant then everything else.

«The capacity to understand the world, understand the physical world, the ability to remember and retrieve things, persistent memory, the ability to reason, and the ability to plan are four essential characteristics of intelligent systems» (Yann Lecun). It is not a good definition, what it means to understand the world, to reason, to plan. It is not easy to give a good definition of intelligent systems, but it is easy to replace some abstractions with another abstractions.

«How does next-token prediction in large language models (LLMs) yield remarkably intelligent behavior? … These models have demonstrated extraordinary capabilities beyond just mastering language.» (Ibrahim Alabdulmohsin, Vinh Q. Tran, Mostafa Dehghani, «Fractal Patterns May Unravel the Intelligence in Next-Token Prediction»). There is nothing remarkable, not intelligent because all answers are manually prepared. Next-Token prediction is just a way to probablistically store and retrive data, there is no intelligence at all. LLM can be thought of as an interactive dictionary or encyclopedia with an advanced query language.

In his paper «Computing Machinery and Intelligence» Alan Turing asked the

question «Can machines think?» and introduced the Turing Test to verify whether machines could achieve human-level intelligence. The problem is that it is possible to create an emulation of thinking. Modern computing systems can process all the information collected by mankind, moreover, a huge number of human editors (AI-trainers) can be used to correct such systems. The old Turing test does not make sense, but it is possible to develop a test in which there should be no previously known typical patterns of reasoning. The new test should be based on the ability to generate and test hypotheses, build probabilistic chains of reasoning, without the ability to solve the problem by brute force.

«If you are the smartest person in the room, you need to find a smarter room.» (Ranal Currie) – definitely, environment is extremely critical, communications with smarter persons than you will make you smarter.

«These 4 phrases you have higher emotional intelligence (paraphrase, ask questions): „What I hear you saying is..“, „Let me get this right..“, „How did that make you feel?“, „What might have led you to that?“» (Aditi Shrikant, «If you use any of these 4 phrases you have higher emotional intelligence than most») – summarizing, paraphrasing and asking questions indicate that you are actively involved in conversations what gives you a basis for emotional intelligence usage.

«Intelligence is multidimensional, and therefore there’s no one point at which AI will exceed human intelligence.» (Pedro Domingos). Sounds good, especially since current AI is just bits of human work wrapped in technology.

«The Measure of Intelligence is The Ability to Change.» – Albert Einstein. An obligatory property of intelligence, without the ability to change intelligence is impossible.

«Intelligence is the ability to adapt to change.» (Stephen Hawking) – echoes Einstein’s previous quote.

Intelligence

No one really knows what intelligence is and how it works, although we all deal with intelligence all the time, both our own and the intelligences around us. Intelligence is both an individual and a social phenomenon, perhaps intelligence can only be developed in a society where both knowledge transfer and exchange of experience and competition are possible. All this contributes to the development of intelligence.

There is a generally accepted understanding of intelligence that is more or less consistent both at the individual level and among various institutions. Many would agree that the hallmarks of intelligence would be the ability to learn and interact socially. Also the ability to apply the knowledge and skills acquired to solve problems, achieve goals, and develop, both one’s own and group success. It is important to have different views on the nature of intelligence and how best to define and measure it.

Philosophers have debated the nature of intelligence for centuries. Some view intelligence as the ability to reason and acquire knowledge through logic. Others view intelligence as acquiring knowledge from experience and the senses. More recently, developmental theories view intelligence not as a fixed ability, but as an ability that grows through active exploration and interaction with the environment.

There is a view that sees intelligence as a property of the mind. Intelligence is proposed to be studied through IQ tests and tasks that aim to quantify general cognitive abilities such as thinking, memory, spatial skills and speed of information processing. IQ tasks provide a measure of a person’s intelligence compared to others. There is a valid criticism: IQ tests measure only specific skills, under specific conditions and constraints, missing other important aspects of intelligence. One can train the ability to pass specific IQ tests, but how does that help with real-world tasks?

Anthropologists study intelligence in relation to specific cultural environments. They argue that intelligence has different manifestations in different cultures and corresponds to different historical and social contexts. Applying the values and concepts of one culture to assess intelligence in another can be problematic.

There is a theory of multiple intelligences that suggests expanding the definition beyond verbal and logical-mathematical skills to also include interpersonal, musical, spatial, naturalistic, and other aspects. An interesting concept, it shows that intelligence is not only about high IQ, but also many abilities in different areas.

Artificial intelligence has emerged from the capabilities of computer technology. Which at the basic level can perform primitive operations on transfer, storage and processing of data in the form of sequences of arithmetic-logical operations and program control instructions. Creation of really intelligent systems on the basis of such primitive technologies, with appropriate properties inherent in natural intelligence, is a big challenge. And, by and large, no one has achieved any significant results in this area, despite the hype surrounding the topic. What can be said about today’s AI? There are useful tools, especially based on generative models, which help in solving various tasks, but no more.

The easiest way to study intelligence is from top to bottom, from the general to the particular. We all deal with intelligence all the time. For us, intelligence is a common thing, it is not something outlandish and incomprehensible. This simplicity and accessibility is what is misleading. In fact, we do not understand what intelligence is, or rather we do not understand it at all, although we use it all the time. Yes, there are a couple dozen definitions from different points of view, there is no one universal and comprehensive.

The beginning of understanding what intelligence is, occurs when we realize that we know very little about it, and are ready to be open to new concepts and unexpected knowledge, especially in the light of recent scientific breakthroughs and achievements. Conventionally, approaches to the study of intelligence can be divided into two groups. The first is the high-level study of how intelligence works. The second is the study of natural intelligence at the physical level, from the simplest natural phenomena such as DNA sequences to the workings of the human brain and other living organisms. Building artificial intelligence also contributes to general understanding and progress.

Building intelligent systems or knowledge frameworks is very limited. The essence of the limitation is that there can be only two approaches to intelligence work: 1 – pattern recognition based on experience, 2 – inference based on reasoning. If in the first case everything is clear, consider that immediately there is a ready-made solution or a ranked list in which the most probable solutions are selected. In the second case, chains of reasoning can be very complex, branching, interrupted, etc. It can consist of many stages or steps. At each step, the same principle of two possibilities is at work, a decision pattern may finally emerge, or it may be necessary to go back to reasoning.

Scientific research and hypotheses that have advanced our understanding of intelligence

In the early 1900s, psychologists, including Alfred Binet, began creating the first intelligence tests to detect learning disabilities in children. This marked the beginning of intelligence testing and the concept of IQ.

The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner. This theory states that there are at least eight different types of intelligence including musical, interpersonal, logical-mathematical, kinetic, etc. This disproved the idea that intelligence is pro one type such as logical intelligence.

Emotional intelligence was introduced by psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer. Emotional intelligence includes abilities such as emotion management, empathy and reading social cues. This emphasized the importance of non-cognitive aspects of intelligence.

Advances in brain imaging such as fMRI, PET scans, and EEG have allowed scientists to study and map brain regions that are activated during different cognitive tasks. This has shed light on the neural basis of intelligence. But this does not mean that we have figured out how everything works; on the contrary, the complexity of the brain is staggering. We can’t, like a computer program, see data dumps and trace execution. We can only record activity, and that’s not enough.

The first ideas of artificial intelligence were born by researchers such as Alan Turing, and the development of AI showed the complexity of the problem and the limitations of human cognition. The AI systems created nowadays are mainly based on machine learning models. The idea of machine learning is that on training data the model can learn to reproduce the required result without explicit programming. The idea is interesting, but there is a clear disadvantage: if the data is not representative, i.e. does not cover all typical cases, the model will not work adequately. In fact, it is an approximation by some signs and examples, which is clearly insufficient.

Studies of twins and families have shown that general intelligence is inherited. Identifying specific genes associated with intelligence is an active area of research. It’s a strange thing, such research should be viewed with disbelief, but this line of research should not be dismissed. Overall, an open question.

Large long-term studies of intelligence in childhood and adulthood have shown that cognitive ability is influenced by health, education, and social factors. This has demonstrated the potential for improving IQ. Of course, intelligence can be trained and developed apart from one’s own efforts, social environment, environment are key factors for success.

These studies and hypotheses have advanced the scientific understanding of human intelligence and emphasized its multidimensional nature and potential for growth. Ongoing research seeks to further uncover the biological, social, and other factors that shape intelligence. We are still only at the beginning of the journey, there is a big gap in our understanding of high-level processes and the physics of how it can work. Also, we should not forget that we have many theories and hypotheses, not absolute truths. New research will break down old knowledge, and new hypotheses will push the boundaries of knowledge.

A man with the highest IQ

William James Sidis was an American child prodigy born in 1898, recognized for having an exceptionally high IQ. His intellectual abilities were evident from a young age, and he gained public attention for his remarkable achievements.

Sidis entered Harvard University at the age of 11, making him one of the youngest students ever to attend the prestigious institution. His parents, Boris and Sarah Sidis, raised him according to certain principles to nurture his gifts, though their methods were criticized. His upbringing emphasized intellectual pursuits over social-emotional development.

At Harvard, Sidis set records for his precocity but had difficulties adjusting to the social environment. He later taught mathematics briefly at Rice University before returning to Harvard for law school. Sidis was arrested for participating in a socialist protest in 1919. His early fame from graduating Harvard young made this controversial. He later sought to live a private, independent life.

Sidis pursued interests in varied fields like cosmology, linguistics, Native American history, and transportation systems. He invented a constructed language and wrote books under pseudonyms. After his death, his sister claimed Sidis had the very highest IQ ever obtained, possibly over 250. However, some of these claims were likely exaggerated.

Sidis’s experiences raised discussions about how to best educate gifted children and whether to accelerate their schooling. His difficulties adjusting socially shaped views against fast-tracking education.

High-IQ society

Mensa is the largest and oldest high-IQ society in the world. It is a non-profit organization open to people who score in the 98th percentile or higher on an approved standardized intelligence test. Mensa provides a platform for brilliant minds to connect, socialize, and engage in thought-provoking activities.

It was founded in Oxford, England by Roland Berrill and Lancelot Ware with the intention of forming a society for highly intelligent people, without discrimination based on race, religion, etc. Mensa has around 134,000 members in 100 countries across 54 national groups. The largest national groups are American Mensa, British Mensa, and Mensa Germany.

The aim was to create a non-political, non-profit organization that would nurture and celebrate human intelligence. Since then, Mensa has grown into a global phenomenon, with national and regional groups hosting a plethora of events and gatherings for members to indulge their intellectual curiosities.

Membership requires scoring in the 98th percentile on approved IQ tests like the Stanford-Binet (score 132+), Cattell (148+), or Wechsler (130+) tests. Mensa holds annual gatherings and other events at local, national and international levels for members. It publishes newsletters/magazines and a research journal.

Mensa is open to children as young as 2 years old who meet the IQ criteria. Its oldest members have been over 100 years old. As of 2023, American Mensa’s membership was 64% male, 32% female, with members across different generations from Gen Z to the Silent Generation.

One of the most fascinating aspects of Mensa is its illustrious roster of members, past and present. From renowned writers and scientists to tech moguls and world leaders, the organization has attracted a diverse array of intellectual powerhouses.

One of the most highly anticipated events on the Mensa calendar is the Annual Gathering (AG), a multi-day extravaganza that brings together members from around the world. The AG features a diverse array of activities, including lectures, workshops, games, and social events, all designed to stimulate the mind and foster camaraderie among like-minded individuals.

While Mensa is often associated with intellectual prowess, the organization also embraces a playful side. Members frequently engage in quirky challenges and competitions, such as the Mensa Mind Games, where participants put their problem-solving skills to the test through a series of puzzles and brainteasers. These events not only showcase the members’ mental agility but also highlight the organization’s commitment to fostering a fun and engaging environment for its intellectually gifted members.

Beyond its traditional activities, Mensa has also made its mark in popular culture. The organization has been featured in numerous books, movies, and television shows, often portrayed as a bastion of intellectual elitism. However, Mensa strives to dispel this notion by emphasizing its inclusive nature and commitment to promoting intelligence in all its forms.

As Mensa continues to grow and evolve, its mission remains steadfast: to celebrate human intelligence, foster intellectual camaraderie, and provide a platform for brilliant minds to thrive. With its rich history, diverse membership, and unique activities, Mensa stands as a testament to the power of the human mind and the enduring pursuit of knowledge.

Emotional Intelligence

Intelligence is often defined by IQ, which is our ability to acquire knowledge and skills through reasoning, logic and analysis. However, a high IQ alone does not guarantee success or happiness in life. Emotional intelligence – the ability to understand and effectively manage emotions – is becoming an equally, if not more, important form of intelligence.

Emotional intelligence allows us to recognize, control, and express our emotions, as well as understand and empathize with the feelings of others. It is a critical ability for personal, social and professional success. People with high levels of emotional intelligence know how to recognize their own and others’ emotions, use them productively, and regulate moods and impulses.

There are serious benefits to mastering emotion and social skills. Emotionally intelligent people cope well with stress, build stronger relationships, and communicate effectively. Research shows that emotional intelligence enhances learning, decision-making, creativity, and productivity. It allows us to positively use emotions for problem solving, self-motivation, cooperation, and empathy.

In contrast, high IQ does not necessarily lead to the development of the social-emotional competencies necessary for success in the real world. High analytical and academic intelligence may even hinder the development of social skills. Some gifted children experience social and emotional difficulties despite their intellectual potential.

Emotional skills are essential for personal and professional flourishing. Doctors and lawyers with high EQs interact better with patients and clients. Managers who understand emotions effectively inspire teams. Self-reflection, self-control, social awareness and relationship skills have proven to be vital for leaders.

Emotional competencies can be developed with effort and practice. By learning to control our feelings and interact positively with others, we can continue to develop emotional intelligence throughout our lives.

In general, emotional intelligence complements and enhances cognitive abilities. Mastery of emotions and social dynamics is an invaluable asset. Nurturing emotional skills along with academic growth will lead to greater success and fulfillment in all areas of endeavor.

Some of the key figures in developing the concept of emotional intelligence are Peter Salovey, psychologist, and John D. Mayer, professor of psychology. In 1990, they published a seminal paper entitled «Emotional Intelligence» in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.

Daniel Goleman later popularized the concept in his 1995 book titled Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Goleman’s book attracted widespread attention to the idea of emotional intelligence and its importance to various aspects of life, including personal and professional success.

Thus, while Salovey and Mayer played an important role in the early development of the concept, Daniel Goleman played a significant role in bringing emotional intelligence to the attention of a wide audience.

It should not be forgotten that the separation of the concepts of emotional, logical, or any other type of intelligence is very arbitrary, and natural intelligence inscrutably accommodates all of these abilities. Researchers resort to such abstractions (IQ, EQ, etc.) in the course of their work to solve their problems. Unfortunately, it is not uncommon to try to capitalize on such concepts by translating them into marketing and info-products.

Strategies to boost EQ

Emotional intelligence involves knowing, understanding, and managing one’s own emotions, as well as recognizing and empathizing with the emotions of others. The four domains of EQ are outlined as follows (Kathleen Davis, «Science-based strategies to help boost emotional intelligence at work and in life»):

1. Recognizing and understanding one’s own emotions, involving practices like asking for feedback and identifying emotional cues.

2. Regulating emotions to be agile and adaptable, including activities such as taking a walk, deep breathing, or engaging in therapeutic processes.

3. Empathizing with others and considering their perspectives, contributing to creating a sense of belonging in the workplace.

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