CONTENT

THE NUCLEON SPIN AS CAUSE OF THE STRONG INTERACTION

HELMUT ALBERT

Imprint:

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. STATE OF RESEARCH

2.1 STRONG INTERACTION

2.2 ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE EFFECTS IN THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

2.3 YUKAWA THEORY

2.4 INSERT: Standard Model of Particle Physics

2.5 QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS

2.6 NUCLEAR MODELS AND NUCLEON PAIRS

2.7 NEW EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

3. COUNTERPOSITION: QCD

3.1 CRITICAL VIEW: QCD.

3.2 THE NUCLEON SPIN AS CAUSE OF THE STRONG INTERACTION

3.3 RESEARCH RESULTS

3.4 PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS BY THE AUTHOR

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

5. FIGURES

6. SUMMARY

7. BIOGRAPHY

THE NUCLEON SPIN AS CAUSE OF THE STRONG INTERACTION

Spin up and Spin down

Helmut Albert

Imprint:

Concept, texts and illustrations:

© Copyright: Helmut Albert; December 2020

Publisher: Helmut Albert, Talstraße 63, 79102 Freiburg / Germany

hm.albert@t-online.de. Internet: www.proton-neutron.com

Translated with www.DeepL.com/Translator

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

The importance attached to the strong interaction today becomes clear when one considers the current research effort. While basic research is the daily bread of scientists in physical institutes and facilities, additional projects with large research budgets are being launched. For example, the European research project "STRONG 2020," which focuses on the strong interaction in the atomic nucleus, was launched in 2019/2020. It is hoped that the results will lead to progress for fundamental physics as well as for society.

New theories and positions outside the academic community are not heard very often. But there are reasons to open up. After all, many decades have passed in which highly specialized scientists and gigantic particle accelerators have brought hardly any progress to the theory of the strong interaction. People still cling to the so-called Quantum chromodynamics, the name of which makes one think more of the description of a painting by Jackson Pollock than of an interaction between atomic building blocks. However, it would not be the first time in history that science would be subject to decades of error, as was the case, for example, with the "Phlogiston theory" in the 18th century. But in order not only to criticize, but also to make a productive contribution, I publish here a counterposition to the theory of Quantum chromodynamics. This paper partly incorporates contents of my work on checkerboard atomic structure published between 2017 and 2019.

Helmut Albert, Freiburg, December 2020

1. INTRODUCTION

With the present paper, a counterposition to the interaction theory, Quantum chromodynamics is presented. For this purpose, the state of research on the theory of the strong interaction and the ideas and developments which have been important since the thirties of the 20th century are clarified.

In the first part of the treatise it is conveyed what is to be understood physically by the term "Interaction". The example of the electrostatic interaction of an ion crystal shows how interaction and particle structure are related and cannot be seen independently of each other. Also the first atomic models of the 20th century were based on the idea of the electrostatic interaction of electrically charged atomic components. It was postulated that the electrically opposite charges of the atomic building blocks balance each other out or, depending on the number of particles, cause a positively or negatively charged atom.

In the further course, the discovery of the charge-free neutron in 1932 is regarded as a decisive caesura. An atomic nucleus based on electrically charged atomic building blocks was thus called into question. A non-electric interaction had to be found. Hediki Yukawa presented a first theory in 1935. A similar theory based on exchange particles, the Quantum chromodynamics was developed only in the 70's analogous to the theory of "Quantum electrodynamics". This theory based on "color charges" is until today the recognized theory of particle physics.

With closer view, the Quantum chromodynamics one recognizes the adventurous hypotheses of this theory, so that it is not difficult to take a counterposition. In the second part this theory is shown. The basis of this counter theory is the rotational energy and rotational direction of the nucleons. According to this theory they are the key to the understanding of the strong interaction of the atom. The paper partly includes contents of earlier works. Finally, the latest results of investigations on atomic nuclei are shown and put in relation to the "new" theory.

For the sake of simplicity, the term particle physics (Elementary particle physics) is also used in this paper to refer to nuclear physics. The term atomic nucleus is used as a designation for the particle system of protons and neutrons, but it does not mean that the author also assumes an atomic shell.

This work is a translation of the German edition "Der Nukleonenspin als Ursache der starken Wechselwirkung". In the text, the sources are reproduced in their original language. The English translations can be found in the Bibliography.

2. STATE OF RESEARCH

2.1 STRONG INTERACTION

According to the Standard Model of particle physics, the strong interaction, also called the strong force or nuclear force, is one of the four fundamental forces of physics. It describes the force with which the nuclear building blocks of the atom are held together. Until today, however, the real cause of this interaction is still unclear, although a theory exists in the form of Quantum chromodynamics and numerous technical books and papers describe the phenomenon. In his standard work "Kernphysik" Mayer- Kuckuk writes:

„Uns tritt hier eine neue, in der klassischen Physik und in der Atomphysik nicht bekannte Wechselwirkung entgegen, die sogenannte starke Wechselwirkung“(Mayer-Kuckuk 1992:146)[1] Translation

Generally one understands today by interaction a mutual influence of two bodies, things or circumstances. When one entity acts on the other, it acts back with the same force. Isaac Newton(1643-1727) formulated his Third Newton's Law:

"if one object A exerts a force FA on a second object B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB on A, and the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction: FA = −FB“. (Newton 1686 quoted from Wikipedia 2020).

This "interaction principle" forms the condition for the structure of particle systems. Electrically charged atoms, i.e. ions, build up to ion crystals or ion lattices. In the case of sodium chloride, for example, an electrically positive sodium atom interacts with a negative chlorine atom and vice versa. In this case, the ionic structure takes place with an equal number of positive and negative ions in the cubic system. In the sectional plane of a simple ionic crystal such as sodium chloride, a checkerboard-like

J.J. Thomson (1856-1940) probably also imagined a similar homogeneous structure of electric particles for the atom when he presented the first atomic model of the 20th century, the so-called raisin cake model. He assumed that an atom has an electric positive basic charge, which interacts with the homogeneously distributed electric negative electrons, so that negative and positive charges balance each other out. This conception of the atom is thus reminiscent of the homogeneous arrangement of ions in an ion crystal as we know it today.

The principle of an atom on an electrostatic basis was also adopted by Ernest Rutherford(1871-1937) and Niels Bohr(1885-1962) for their nuclear-shell atomic models and is still valid today. However, the electrically positive particles are located in the nucleus and the negative ones in the atomic shell, thus dividing positive and negative charges into two distinct regions of space. All electrically negative charges of the electrons in the atomic shell versus all electrical charges of the protons in the atomic nucleus. If there is an excess of one or the other kind of particles, the result is a corresponding electrically positive or negative charge of the atom.

A break in these ideas of electrically charged particles of an atom was the discovery of the neutron in 1932. It was shown that the proton and neutron are equal in size and mass, but that a neutron has no electrical charge like a proton. Suddenly, there was a nuclear component that was charge-free. Thus an electrostatic interaction between proton and neutron was ruled out. But since the protons together with the neutrons form the atomic nucleus with a total mass of 99.9 %, there must also be an interaction between them. But if this is not based on the Coulomb force, then another force must act on the nucleons. Thus, after 1932, theories arose which sometimes dealt more with the structure of the atomic nucleus and sometimes more with the interaction of the nucleons. Until today, however, neither the nuclear theories nor the interaction theory of particle physics can provide a convincing picture of the atom. It has not been possible to find a force and interaction of nucleons which is not based on electric charge. This is partly confirmed by particle physics.

2.2 ATTRACTIVE