LAURA CUMMING
A FACE TO THE WORLD
ON SELF-PORTRAITS

Dedication

In memory of my father James Cumming

And for Elizabeth, Dennis, Hilla and Thea with all my heart

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Dedication

Preface

1. Secrets

2. Eyes

3. Dürer

4. Motive, Means and Opportunity

5. Rembrandt

6. Behind the Scenes

7. Velázquez

8. Mirrors

9. Performance

10. Stage Fright

11. Loners

12. Egotists

13. Victims

14. Pioneers

15. Falling Apart

16. Farewells

Select Bibliography

Index

Select General Reading

List of Plates

Acknowledgements

Notes

Copyright

About the Publisher

Preface

‘We were created to look at one another, weren’t we?’

Edgar Degas

Charles Dickens once said that he lived in perpetual dread of any sudden new discovery about Shakespeare: the revelation of a letter, an image, a biographical fact, anything that might disturb his life’s fine mystery. The little that was known was dismaying enough – that the Universal Genius had a hard head for business and thought nothing of pursuing the tiniest of debts through the courts; that the author of the Tragedies also found time to pester the government about the state of the roads around Stratford. At least nobody really knew what Shakespeare looked like. To Dickens’s relief, there was no face to disillusion the faithful since not one of the portraits for which claims of authenticity were so often published in Victorian times was made by an artist known to have met him. The ruffed bust of the bard at Stratford, the Chandos dandy with his golden earring: these could be regarded as false idols for a credulous population. Dickens despised the public’s need for a face and could not contain his scorn when asked to help fund a statue of Shakespeare, replying that he would not contribute a farthing for a likeness because the work must be the only lasting monument.¹

The ideal Shakespeare for Dickens is the Shakespeare we have, a genius and an absolute blank. Immortal, invisible, unimaginably wise: something like God Almighty. This is exactly the comparison that occurs to Jorge Luis Borges in Everything and Nothing, his parable of Shakespeare’s extraordinary elusiveness as an actual person. Borges imagines a conversation at the pearly gates between the two great creators in which Shakespeare, having been so many other people in his art, appeals to God to let him be just one man at last. But God offers not the slightest hope: ‘I too have no self; I dreamed the world as you dreamed your work, my Shakespeare, and among the shapes of my dream are you, who, like me, are many men and no one.’² Shakespeare has no unified self, no single identity and certainly no fixed appearance. In fact, he is too great to have been visible at all; Borges describes him as a hallucination, a dream dreamt by nobody, a cloud of ethereal vapour.

For all those who would prefer Shakespeare to remain invisible many more long for a definitive face, perhaps hoping to find a trace of character in its expression, or to feel a direct line of communication opening before them, or just for the simple and irreducible fascination of knowing what Shakespeare looked like. This curiosity is not to be despised. You do not have to believe, like Schopenhauer, that the outer man is a picture of the inner, or that the face is a manifestation of the soul. From the infant’s ability to read two dots and a dash as primitive features barely before its eyes can focus, to the instinctive imagining of the unseen correspondent or the speaker on the other end of the line, from our mass observation of passers-by in the street to the rage for Facebook, a compulsion to look at our fellow beings unites us. How can one not take an interest in faces, real or represented? It is almost a test of human solidarity. Degas told Sickert he always took the omnibus across Paris because he could never see enough people from inside a closed carriage. ‘We were created to look at one another, weren’t we?’³

Yet the strain of antipathy towards portraiture that runs in and out of history, that once demoted it well below battle scenes or bathing nymphs, that derides it as face-painting and mistrusts its version of the truth, has something to do with faces and not just pictures. For faces do not always fit, people do not look as they should. Appearances may create a spurious sense of intimacy when they look right for the part – this is just how one imagined the famous person – or sudden and dismaying estrangement when they don’t. Delacroix, passionate in painting, has a prim little toothbrush moustache. Stravinsky is a lugubrious bureaucrat. Rothko, his aim so spiritual, is a heavy lug in blue-tinted glasses. Almost everyone would prefer a better Shakespeare than the egghead of the First Folio engraving (which Ben Jonson, having known the original, worryingly endorsed on the opposite page) and nobody can stomach the portly dolt with his cushion and quill commemorated in the bust at Stratford. If Shakespeare made us most fully human to ourselves then surely he should look more like some other great soul; Shakespeare should look more like Rembrandt.

Or more like a Rembrandt self-portrait, to be precise; not Rembrandt as he might have looked to a fellow artist. Another painter could have settled a few pedantic questions about Rembrandt’s actual appearance – the colour of his eyes and hair, the shape of his nose and so on – about which he is notoriously cavalier and inconsistent. But no matter how accurate such a portrait might have been, it could never give the sense of inner mutability, of a personality altered daily by experience, never fixed, ever-changing, that makes the Rembrandt of the self-portraits so human, so Shakespearean.

Of course it could be argued that self-portraits involve obvious conflicts of interest, that they may be less true to appearances than portraits. But they are not just portraits, for all that art history often treats them as a subset; and they often specialize in other kinds of truth. Artists have portrayed themselves, improbably, as wounded, starving or unconscious beneath a tree, as a baby being born or a severed head dripping blood, as younger or older or even of the opposite sex. We clearly do not consult self-portraits for documentary evidence. But no matter how fanciful, flattering or deceitful the image, it will always reveal something deep and incontrovertible (and distinct from a portrait) – namely this special class of truth, this pressure from within that determines what appears as art without, that leaves its trace in every self-portrait. In Rembrandt’s case it might be the desire to appear head-in-air when most down and out, or the urge to portray oneself as laughing in the dark or all alone in the world. The pose could be an outright lie, for all we know, but the fiction always carries its own truth – the truth of how the artist hoped to be seen and known, how he wished to represent (and see) himself. Had Shakespeare been able to paint as he wrote, had Shakespeare left a self-portrait, not even Dickens could have denied its transcendent value.

Self-Portrait, c. 1663 Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69)

This book, like many, has its origins in childhood. Ill in bed, I was given what its owner called a portable museum: dozens of postcards of Old Masters in a shoebox. Among the many pictures of people were some that stood apart, having that intensity about the eyes that even a child recognizes as the sign of a self-portrait. Two stayed out of the box, probably never given back and as mysterious to me now as they were then; both appear in this book.

Jacques-Louis David was a puzzling presence because he appeared puzzled himself; discomforting because he seemed in evident discomfort. I could not have said what was wrong with him or even what was odd about the picture, except that the artist seemed to be in some peculiar sense convalescent, which was exactly how I imagined my state. Or did I learn that from him? The painting drew me in so forcefully with its image of a man who seems strange even to himself that it gave me a sudden insight into how it might feel to be perplexed as an adult.

The events leading up to this moment, what cinema calls the backstory, are exceptionally dramatic. (They are laid out in Chapter 11.) But they only explain the occasion, not the painting, and in re-entering my early response to it I have tried instead to get to the heart of that startling switch that self-portraits can effect, putting you on the spot – in the artist’s position – through their involving intensity of look. You are as he was: contemplating himself; you see him through his own eyes. Growing up, I realized how this resonates with our own experience all the time, the way we consult the mirror to question our appearance, rearrange our looks.

The other self-portrait was not intimate at all: Dürer’s painting of himself in 1500, the midpoint of the millennium, so eerie in its glacial charisma. It looked too modern to have been painted so long ago (a classic reaction to high illusion among children), too alive to be trapped behind ancient glazes and varnish. Although I was quite frightened by the picture, it made me aware for the first time that people in pictures could seem as exciting as people in real life. Much later, a German school friend sent me a postcard of the self-portrait, writing on the reverse that she had quite a crush on Dürer. My art teacher strongly disapproved when I showed it to him, probably suspecting my interest in the face, certainly doubting its status as an image. ‘There’s too much of the artist,’ he declared, ‘in the picture.’ But both his words and hers strike at a defining aspect of self-portraiture – and of this self-portrait in particular – which is the fusion of person with picture. With all portraits, no matter how mediocre the image, how brief and faltering its illusion, there is always the sense of coming face to face with another person before that person reverts to an image. Self-portraits go further in claiming the two to be one and the same.

A person and a picture all in one, the artist as masterpiece: faced with the self-portraits of Dürer, Rembrandt, David, Dickens’s opposition between man and work falls apart. And it is in the oscillation between the two that one perceives the mind at work, for whatever they show of the outer person, self-portraits speak of the inner self too in the character and choice of depiction. Sitters in portraits may assume their own pose, expression, clothes and so forth, although it is remarkable how often artists, especially portraitists like Sargent, control the whole show right down to wardrobe and hair. Self-portraitists do all this and more, true to their own desires about how to picture themselves from within and without, both in and as works of art.

I take these truths to be significant and am struck by the reticence of Poussin, fastidiously withdrawing into an enclosure of his own paintings, almost an abstract of his art; by the unstoppable ego of Courbet trying to thrust his way out of the space of the picture. By Rosa with his glowering mountain-man pose looming above a tablet engraved with the injunction to keep quiet if you’ve nothing better to say, the solemnity of both the words and the image half-mocked by the melodramatic pose.

Rosa speaks loudly, no matter that he is affecting to keep silent. Self-portraiture is rarely the ‘singular, in-turned art’ described by Julian Bell in his classic 500 Self-Portraits, however introspective its reputation. Not even David is talking only to himself, as it seems to me. When Munch painted Self-Portrait in Hell, in which he appears up to his waist in sulphurous paint, he wasn’t simply describing the lonely anguish of being abandoned by a lover who had brought him so much grief the artist had turned a gun on himself (strategically missing everything but the tip of a finger). He was issuing a public accusation specifically for display in an Oslo gallery where anyone, including the press, could see it. Self-portraiture is an opportunity to put across one’s side of the story and it has been exploited at times as a love letter, mission statement or suicide note by other means.

Its special look, so sharp, so expectant, shifts straight into the first person address, and self-portraiture has its counterparts in speech – soliloquies, monologues, laments – as well as the written word in the form of prologues, sonnets, memoirs (in addition to its sublime qualities as a painting, Velázquez’s Las Meninas, with its maze of relationships, may also be the one great novel in art). But the directness and potential intimacy of speech come with peculiar dilemmas and anomalies. Should the self-portrayer show him or herself in the act of painting – true to the moment of creation – or doing something completely different that might appear more impressive but less plausible? And if painting, should the picture in view be this one or another? And if this one, what about the paradox of timing – I show myself in the middle of painting, but my picture is obviously finished. The supposedly direct relation between mirror and canvas is confusing and even compromised. Who is this in the mirror: myself or another, I or he? And when painted, has this self become someone independent of me? Some artists, for instance Sargent in an image so devoid of inner stresses it might as well be a portrait, or Titian in a magnificent self-portrait in which he is looking away and clearly impatient to be gone, justify their presence by appearing as far as possible in the alibi of the third person.

And why do artists choose to show themselves in the first place, exposing themselves and their art to the accusations of narcissism so often raised by critics who seem to confuse self-representation with self-regard? Historically, there has never been much money or glory in it; self-portraits, unlike portraits, are rarely commissioned or appraised as the high point of an artist’s career, although well over a thousand have been painted specially for the Vasari self-portrait corridor of the Uffizi since the seventeenth century; an honour, incidentally, that appears to stifle creativity even among some highly original painters. But self-portraits are often called for in more intimate ways – a gift for a friend, a wedding present, the embodiment of reproachfulness, appreciation or love. Goya painted himself in the arms of the doctor who saved him from dying, in gratitude for his life. Murillo painted a self-portrait at his children’s request that would live with them in all its touching benevolence (literally: the picture turns upon the tangible movement of his fingers) after the artist’s death.

Self-portraits make artists present as the embodiment of their art; it sounds so neat and succinct. But they often do so only to ask who or what this person is who is looking back from the mirror, how dismaying it is to be alone, how hard it is to represent or even just to be oneself in the wide world of mankind. I only know for certain the exact circumstances in which one such self-portrait was made but my sense is that something in this artist’s experience may speak to a universal truth.

She was my mother, Elizabeth Cumming, studying painting at Edinburgh College of Art not long after the Second World War and surrounded by men who fought that war, many of them still in uniform at the easel. Compared to these heroes who had seen – and changed – the world, she felt she knew about nothing more significant than herself. College days were spent painting the external world of which she had such a powerless grasp, but one night when everyone else had gone home she took a canvas into a studio and made a rapid self-portrait in secret. There was more conviction in that image, she said, than all the heaped apples and male nudes she ever painted. My mother had made herself real, momentarily, to herself.

She would be horrified to think that a painting kept hidden ever since should be mentioned in the same pages as Velázquez, but they have something in common. Self-portraits stand in the same relation to each other as human beings – possessed of a self, members of the same infinitely various race.

I don’t say that this puts them beyond criticism, far from it. But if this book has the slightest hint of a unifying theory of self-portraiture (and it is by no means obvious that any theory which could be made to stretch all the way from Las Meninas to Andy Warhol in his fright wig would be of much ultimate value) it is that the behaviour of people in self-portraits has a strange tendency to reflect the behaviour of people in life. One might say this of portraits too, but it is not so easy to think of an example of a portrait in which the sitter tears at his face, pulls out his hair, looms up at a mirror in disbelief or recoils quite openly from it (still less where the sitter is masturbating or wallowing stark naked in cash). Nor do many portraits express what it is like to live deep inside the mind of the sitter. Rembrandt’s depth of knowledge is not an illusion. Van Gogh’s mind teems. Velázquez senses the brevity of our life’s day in the sun as few other painters in art.

This is a book of inquiry as well as praise; it examines how and what self-portraits communicate and why they come to look as they do. And it considers something else that unites us – the representation of our selves – in terms of artists’ self-portraits. We all have a self and a public existence, however limited, and it is the daily requirement that we put together some sort of face to the world. The thought of having to create a definitive face for all time, though, might make even an extrovert falter and there are chapters here on stage fright and the serial self-portraiture in which artists give themselves another mollifying chance. On the other hand the opportunity to put oneself across as completely as one cannot in life (pace those conflicts of interest, such as boasting and lying, also discussed here) as a rehearsed address instead of an off-the-cuff ramble has its obvious appeal. The most poignant self-portrait I know is the little picture by Carracci, reproduced at the end of this book, where the artist makes his address even while wondering whether any of his attempts to communicate will ever succeed.

Art historians do not concern themselves much with the power of art to move, disturb, inspire, indeed to affect the emotions of the viewer; yet it is hard to think of many artists even in the last century whose own concerns and ambitions are exclusively formal. Self-portraiture offers a perfect instance of this dichotomy. Historians sometimes treat it as the remote and insignificant twig of the far greater branch of portraiture, finding in self-portraits a profession’s collective representation of itself, a way of signing works, signalling skill, exemplifying style; where there is no written evidence concerning a self-portrait, they prefer to avoid remarking on its human content. But I cannot believe that self-portrayers are never thinking of themselves and their lives, or that self-portraits have no subjective or personal significance, that they are not in some profound sense a fragment of someone’s self. I cannot see Rembrandt’s self-portraits solely in terms of the art market in seventeenth-century Holland any more than I can look at Dürer’s 1500 self-portrait, even after historians have tried to put out its fire with theological explanations, and not be amazed. These self-portraits have ineluctable mystery as part of their content.

A history of self-portraiture may one day be written, though such a work would have to concede that there is no straight path in any case, that self-portraiture is a series of fits and starts, cul-de-sacs, detours and strange digressions. Still, these separate essays are approximately chronological and linked, one to the next, as a narrative with its own story. Most of the self-portraits discussed are paintings. No prejudice is intended towards video or sculpture, although sculpted self-portraits are comparatively rare; it is simply that paintings have fascinated me more.

Many of them fulfil Dickens’s ideal of the lasting monument, are among the artist’s greatest works, if not the greatest of all; others struggle with the multiple personalities that Borges imagines must have afflicted Shakespeare. Peculiarly testing in its demands upon the artist who has to hit upon some form of self to represent, peculiarly rich in the self-knowledge on which it can call, self-portraiture draws forth some of the most profound and advanced picture-making in art. It turns the subject inside out, and remakes him or her as an indivisible trinity: there is the work of art, the image of the maker and the truth of what he or she sensed, imagined or believed about themselves and how they chose, as we all must choose, to present themselves.

1 Secrets

‘The world so conceived, though extremely various in the types of things and perspectives it contains, is still centerless. It contains us all, and none of us occupies a metaphysically privileged position. Yet each of us, reflecting on this centerless world, must admit that one very large fact seems to have been omitted from its description: the fact that a particular person in it is himself.’

Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere.

Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?), 1433 Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

On a clear day, when the sunshine is bright, we cannot help glimpsing ourselves as spontaneous reflections, vividly present in polished metal and glass, more provisional in opaque surfaces. The pianist becomes aware of his fingers echoed in the sheen above the keyboard. The caller sees his face in the mobile phone. The writer becomes a shadow in the computer’s screen when the glare gets too harsh, coming between her thoughts and her words as maddeningly as those vitreous flecks that drift across the optical field when staring at a white sky or during the prelude to a migraine; each is an involuntary manifestation of oneself.

At home we only have to draw a curtain to deaden our own image but the wider world is not so conveniently adjusted. We spot ourselves large as life in the windows of shops, tiny in wine glasses and spoons, in others’ eyes and the lenses of their spectacles. Mainly we ignore these inklings of ourselves, except when the object that contains them is big enough to be exploited as a face-checking device, but the truth is that nobody actually needs a mirror to see how they look. The daylight world is a sphere of endless reflections in which we are caught and held, over and again, and even at night the curtainless window becomes a mirror when backed by outer darkness. Surrounded by these shining surfaces and the reflections they give back, there is no getting away from our selves.

Flemish painting loves this world of surfaces. It aims to do them to perfection, as if getting them exactly right was the guarantee of some higher truth than material reality. And this must have seemed the case nearly six hundred years ago when these painters very suddenly began creating images of God’s universe so persuasive to the eye, all the way from the broad rays of the sun to the microcosmic fire inside a diamond, that contemporary viewers thought they could hardly have been made by human hand. A saint’s golden cope and all the tinsel-bright threads running through it; a carpet and all its individual woollen staples, and then every thread in each: surely this must be some kind of God-given miracle, for such minutiae couldn’t possibly be rendered by an ordinary mortal with a paintbrush. The old strain of incredulity rings true even today since one still marvels to see such immaculate illusions of life unfolding from the nearest dewdrop to the furthest range of mountains. And if Flemish art aspires to a visibility that amazes then the work of Jan Van Eyck goes even further, rising to a kind of godly omniscience – all you can see and more, as much of the world as can be gathered into the little compass of a painting, above, below and beyond. Van Eyck developed a way of expanding the field of vision by using reflections to show what was just out of sight as well as what was beyond the picture altogether: the entire skyline of a distant town reflected in the gleaming helmet of an archer, an offstage martyrdom in a heretic’s breastplate. The armour will be super-real, so like the thing itself as to baffle belief; the reflections will make visible even more of the world.

When it comes to reality, Jan Van Eyck is the supreme master. His art is so lifelike it was once thought divine. But he does not simply set life before us as it is – an enduring objection to realism, that it is no more than mindless copying – he adjusts it little by little to inspire awe at the infinite variety of the world and our existence within it, the astonishing fact that it contains not just all this but each of our separate selves. What is more, Van Eyck makes this point in person, and not once but several times with a humility that amounts to a trait. Yet experts barely seem to notice the human aspects of these incidental appearances, or the startling solo portrait he left of himself, for arguing about whether they can be deemed self-portraits in the first place. This is one of the disadvantages of being a pioneer; Van Eyck is too early to assimilate. Because there is no flourishing tradition of self-portraiture in Europe yet, he is not allowed to be painting himself. Clearly there must have been great self-portraitists before him when one considers how much art of the period is lost (some estimate that only a quarter of Renaissance art survives) but even quite serious art historians seem to imagine that nobody could produce a sophisticated self-portrait without a sophisticated mirror, or that nobody had a self before its supposed invention later in the Renaissance and that Van Eyck is only fooling about with figments. But his art argues against such primitive and arrogant notions and does so with characteristic grace. Look at the way that Van Eyck finesses his own image into a great altarpiece such as The Madonna and Child of Canon van der Paele by way of drawing attention to the fact that anyone who looks at a bit of fiercely polished metal, no matter how grey the day, is pretty much bound to see himself.

The Madonna and Child are sitting in a space so cramped there is hardly room for their visitors: St Donatien on the left in a blue and gold cope, St George on the right in a cacophonous suit of bronze armour. George is a bumptious figure, disturbing the peace and treading clumsily on the vestments of the old cleric kneeling beside him, namely Canon van der Paele, who has commissioned the picture and is even now being introduced to the Virgin.

The point of the picture ought to be the relationship between these four large adults but there are so many other pressing attractions. The heavy eye-glasses in the Canon’s hand, the circular ventricles of the windows, the individual design of every single chequerboard tile; above all the stupendous patterned carpet that begins beneath the Virgin, folds its way down the ceremonial steps and stretches right out of the picture as if to meet the viewer’s own feet, a sensation fully underwritten by the staggering depiction of this woven stuff, too thick to make perfect right-angle bends down each step, its weave stiffening here, flattening there, casting the tiniest of shadows within in its own texture: infinitesimal.

Van Eyck seems to have started out as a miniaturist and part of his achievement is to sustain that technique on a larger scale without any loss of effect so that his pictures never disintegrate into smaller catalogues of detail; you can be densely absorbed in that carpet without losing your sense of the circulation of air, the passage of light or the reflections that keep the space flutteringly alive. St George doffs a helmet ribbed like a conch, its volutes reflecting the mother and child over and again; and the entire scene, from the red granite column behind him to the cold Northern light of the window, is repeated in his breastplate and shield. But there is one reflection that has no identifiable source in the picture because the original stands outside it – a tiny figure in a red turban, one arm raised to apply a brushstroke.

Madonna and Child with Canon Georg van der Paele, 1436 Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

To describe this self-portrait as modest would be an understatement; it is not even the size of a match. Only in a reproduction fully as large as the painting itself – approximately six feet by four – would anyone be able to see it in context. The hiding place is what gives it away, as well as the pose, for to be reflected in the saint’s angled shield at this size the man in the turban would have to be standing back from the picture, near the centre, approximately where we stand to look. And what did the artist see when he stood there? Not the armour, of course, but the wet oil paint itself in which, working close, he must have been hazily reflected.

Detail of Madonna and Child with Canon Georg van der Paele, 1436 Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

The conceit is that the armour he has painted is so sparklingly real Van Eyck can see himself in it, and perhaps there was an actual suit of armour in the workshop, a material object to summon in all its hard glory. But there were no saints and Canon van der Paele clearly never met Mary; the artist is making up his world. There is the fictional scene, the wily old canon sucking up to the mother of God, and there is the miraculous illusion of reality that abets it; between the two, slipped into the surface of the picture, is a reflection of the truth and reality outside it: the painter’s side of the story.

Jan Van Eyck was probably born in 1390, possibly in Maastricht. He worked mainly in Bruges as court painter to Philip, Duke of Burgundy, who sent him on at least two ambassadorial missions by sea, voyages so weather-pitched the ships were forced to dock in England for safety. First he painted Isabella of Spain as a potential bride for the Duke and then he painted Isabella of Portugal; neither portrait survives, but the Portuguese Isabella won the contest.

Philip treasured Van Eyck’s friendship as well as his art, giving him vast bonuses and expensive gifts, becoming godfather to his daughter and supporting his widow. That he prized their conversation is apparent from an outraged letter to some of the painter’s clients who were withholding payments, an insult that the Duke takes personally, declaring he will ‘never find a man equal to [Van Eyck’s] liking, nor so outstanding in his art and science’.¹ Not just art but science as well, meaning knowledge of mathematics, optics, astronomy, geometry, all the learning that enriched Van Eyck’s painting and no doubt his table-talk, but possibly something else too: the invention of oil paint itself.

According to Vasari, teller of tall tales, Van Eyck one day took a most painstaking piece of work out into the sunshine to dry. When he returned, the varnish had cracked and the wooden panel was splitting. Infuriated, but being a man who ‘delighted in alchemy’, Van Eyck experimented with numerous concoctions of egg and oil until he hit upon a secret formula of linseed and nut oil, mixed with ground pigment, that was not only heatproof but waterproof too and which brought a beautiful new lustre to his colours. Out of base substances, Van Eyck supposedly transmutes the precious stuff that ‘all the painters of the world had so long desired’.

Oil painting existed before him, of course, but most artists were still working with tempera or gesso, mixing their pigments with egg white or damp plaster, and getting stuck with their quick-drying effects. Oil paint gives depth and luminosity and reflects light from within, layer by translucent layer. Fluid and lingeringly slow to dry, it allows for infinite variations of hue, tone and consistency and the subtlest of blends and transitions. Van Eyck exploited all these properties to the fullest degree as no other painter before him, inventing not so much a technique as an entire tradition of painting.

His own pictures look as if they have never quite dried, their surfaces shining with liquid light like the very substance of which they are made. Had he lived in the late twentieth century, Van Eyck might even have painted a stunning picture of oil paint itself: the texture and gleam of it on the palette, another wonder of the world. And working so intensively with the palette and so close up to the surface of each panel he must have glimpsed himself in the oil – not exactly a face, just an imprecise blur in whatever he was painting. As long as the sun shines, there is no getting away from ourselves.

Does this painted reflection amount to a self-portrait? It is too small to be much of a likeness, this indirect glimpse, and for some its size irresistibly reduces it to a joke. ‘More playful than profound,’² comments one art historian, with a touch of patronizing indulgence, arguing that the artist does not show himself so much as his character. It is true that one could hardly extrapolate a recognizable likeness from the face and yet something more than character is surely represented in this little self-portrait.

Not at all, according to other experts, for this is not Van Eyck.³ Lay people may want it to be a self-portrait but they only see what they want to see and there is no textual evidence to support the claim. Written evidence trumps visual evidence for art historians even more than for lawyers; without documentary support, such identifications are purely subjective.

Of course, the case could be argued in terms of custom and practice. Artists often appear at the back, in the margins or among the crowds in Renaissance paintings pointing at themselves – it was me, I painted this – and sometimes even gesturing at their painting hand – I made the whole thing with this. (One would have thought the tiny brush in Van Eyck’s hand would have amounted to a form of positive ID too but his case proves more complex.) Some go even further, putting a name to the face. Benozzo Gozzoli included himself among the throng of Medici godfathers and hangers-on wending their way down a valley on horseback in his Procession of the Magi for the Medici chapel in Florence. He wears a scarlet hat with the words ‘Opus Benotti’ lettered in gold round the brim, a pun on his name – Ben Noti, well noted – which was also something of a self-fulfilling prophecy since his is practically the only name not now lost. The caption beneath Pietro Perugino’s pretend ‘portrait’ of himself hanging from its trompe l’oeil chain among the frescos of the Collegio del Cambio in Perugia declares that if the art of painting had never existed then Perugino would have invented it, though since he lavished more care on himself than anyone else – the self-portrait could almost be Flemish – no one could be fooled by this third-person rhetoric. It is traditional to regard such self-portraits as elaborate signatures or advertisements, instances of attention-seeking painters asking to be elevated to some higher status than anonymous craftsmen, though even Gozzoli and Perugino show more conceptual wit than such narrow interpretations allow. But Van Eyck presents problems for experts. Unlike either of the Italians, he did not support this or any other self-portrait with written certification.

So there are supposedly no self-portraits by Jan Van Eyck because none can be substantiated; or there might be one; or they are all just stick-men in a running gag. If Van Eyck paints a reflection of himself in a pearl he is simply celebrating the shininess of the world, not alluding to his own place within it. If he paints a reflection of a man in a turban in The Arnolfini Portrait, it is just another way of signing the work. Right at the outset, the depth and complexity of self-portraiture are already being denied.

But it is not romantic to call these reflections self-portraits; it is a mark of respect. Van Eyck’s art teaches the eye to see the world on an infinitesimally small scale, and it hardly belittles picture or painter to suggest that the miniature figure in the armour expresses self-consciousness in its maker: a figure in the visible world. What wit, moreover, to clinch this extraordinary illusion of reality with a reflection that introduces the here-and-now right into the picture, as if the real and painted worlds were continuous; while at the same time jamming that illusion with a reminder of the artifice involved in the picture’s making personified in the image of its maker. Discount the possibility of a self-portrait and you deny Van Eyck all of these marvellous possibilities. Put simply, you refuse to allow that he could be such an intelligent painter.

Appearances are everything in Van Eyck’s art, and his art is devoted to making them real. Most representational painters leave something to the viewer, requiring us to imagine or deduce some parts of the picture, but Van Eyck does the opposite: his paintings are stupendously complete. Not a hair out of place. Yet it is precisely this fullness of reality that Michelangelo dismissed in an early objection to the realism of the Flemish school: ‘They paint stuffs and masonry, the green grass of the fields, the shadow of trees and rivers and bridges … And all this, though it pleases some persons, is done without reason or art.’

Without reason? Without art? Look at another painting by Van Eyck, in which the Madonna and Child are foolhardy enough to grant an audience to the Duke of Burgundy’s intimidating chancellor. Rolin is a big man with a savage haircut and a look of brute cunning, much like the enforcer he was in real life. The Madonna appears to be drawing cautiously back, but the child on her knee is blessing the politician: exactly what Rolin had paid for.⁴

Behind the lavish chamber in which they sit a whole world unfolds through the windows: green fields, rivers, the shadows of trees and bridges, a sparkling city and beyond it brighter vistas yet. ‘Even those landscapes which seem to extend over fifty miles retain the same degree of solidity and the same fullness of articulation as the very nearest objects,’ wrote the art historian Erwin Panofsky in a famous passage of praise. ‘Jan’s eye operates as a microscope and a telescope at the same time.’⁵ And all this reality – the palace garden and every leaf of it, the meadows and every blade of them to the furthermost glittering pinnacles – is paradise on earth, the landscape of the New Jerusalem.

Detail of The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, c.1435 Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

Between this world and the next, near and far, two little figures are posted like watchers on a promontory. One is studying the view from the palace battlements, the other turns slightly, glancing back in our direction. He wears a red turban and carries the rod of a courtier. The crucial fact about this figure is once again its position, on the threshold between two worlds, present and future, and right at the epicentre of the painting. Draw the diagonals and they would meet on a point: the hand of the man in the turban.

The angel in the New Jerusalem, according to Revelation, has a rod to measure the glorious architecture of the city. The measurements of Van Eyck’s New Jerusalem are exceptionally small – the whole picture is only about two feet wide – and his rod is thus sensationally tiny, a microscopic yardstick for a miniature vision. But even without the biblical aside, and Van Eyck’s paintings are always theologically rich, the little man in his eye-catching turban has a modest humour all of his own: discreet enough to escape Rolin’s self-centred attentions, you feel, but there for those who have eyes to see him.

Van Eyck places himself at the crosshairs of his own field of vision; painting the world, and all its contents, he numbers himself within it. This is not narcissism but modest logic: even without a mirror, or reflections, we are visible to ourselves somewhat. Shut one eye and the projecting nose becomes apparent; look up and see the overhanging brow. We have an outer as well as an inner sense of our own bodies that reflections confirm or confound; and catching sight of these reflections, we are made episodically conscious of our own bodily existence – atoms in time, maybe, but nonetheless the viewing centre of our world.

It has been argued that the only reason anyone ever imagines these little men in red turbans might be Van Eyck is because of another painting by him known as Man in Red Turban.⁶ Or at least that was its title until very recently when visual evidence was finally allowed to outweigh academic caution just a fraction and scholars relabelled it Portrait of a Man (Self-Portrait?).⁷ In fact, there is a faint long-nosed resemblance between this man and the courtier with his rod that has nothing to do with turbans; and turbans are in any case off the point.

Van Eyck stares piercingly out of the picture, a tight-lipped man with fine silver stubble. His look is shrewd, imperturbable, serious. The eyes are a little watery, as if strained by too much close looking, and there is a palpable melancholy to the picture. Look closer, as Van Eyck’s art irresistibly proposes, and you notice something else – that the eyes are not in equal focus. The left eye is painted in perfect register and so clearly that the Northern light from the window glints minutely in the wet of it – the world reflected; but the other is slightly blurred, you might say impressionistic. These eyes are trying to see themselves, have the look of trying to see themselves in some kind of mirror. ‘Jan Van Eyck Made Me’ is written below the image. Along the top runs the inscription ‘Als ich kan’ – ‘As I can’, and punningly ‘As Eyck can’.

Van Eyck painted the ‘Als ich kan’ motto on the frames of other portraits too but it is far more emphatically displayed here to create the illusion that it has been carved into the gilded wood itself. It also appears where he normally names the sitter. But more than that, its play upon the first and third person epitomizes the I-He grammar of self-portraiture to perfection. Here I am, gravely scrutinizing my face in the mirror, and the picture; there he is, the man in the painting.

I am here. He was here. ‘Jan Van Eyck fuit hic’ is written in an exquisite chancery hand on the back wall of The Arnolfini Portrait. Ever since Kilroy was here and everywhere in the twentieth century the phrase has epitomized graffiti, which is, in its elegant way, exactly how Van Eyck uses it.

Everyone knows the Arnolfini – the rich couple with the dog, the oranges, the mirror and the shoes, touching hands in an expensively decorated bedroom. But nobody knows quite what they are doing there, in a bedroom of all places, an intimacy unheard of in Flemish portraiture. This joining of hands, is it the moment of betrothal, the marriage itself, the party afterwards, or nothing to do with a wedding? The bed awaits with its heavy scarlet drapes, the dog hovers, the texture of its fur exquisitely summoned all the way from coarse to whisper-soft. Perhaps he is an emblem of fidelity; perhaps this is a merger between two Italian families trading in luxury goods, as lately suggested, but all interpretations are necessarily reductive for none can fully account for the strange complexities of the painting. Even if one knew precisely why Giovanni Arnolfini was raising his right hand as if to testify he would still be a peculiarly disturbing presence, with his reptilian mask and lashless eyes, dwarfed beneath a cauldron of a hat. He touches, but does not look at the woman. She struggles to hold up the copious yardage of a dress that nobody could possibly walk in. Behind them is that writing on the wall that makes so much of the historic moment, and beneath that is the legendary mirror in which Van Eyck is reflected (in blue), entering into the scene.

Jan Van Eyck was here. It is not strictly accurate in terms of tense, of course, for Van Eyck has to be here right now as he paints his story on the wall. He sends a message to the future about the past, but it is written in the present moment; the paradox is its own little joke, as for every Kilroy. But the mirror also tinkers with the tense of the picture. Without it, you would simply be looking at an image of the past, a time-stopped world of wooden shoes, abundant robes and a sign-language too archaic to decode. But things are still happening in the mirror, a man is on the verge of entering, life continues on our side – the painter’s side – of this room. For Van Eyck invented something else too, not just a new way of painting but the whole idea of an open-ended picture that extends into our world and vice versa. Just as his reflection passes over the threshold to enter the room where the Arnolfini stand, so he creates the illusion that we may accompany him there as well. The tiny self-portrait is the key to the door. Art need not be closed.

Detail of The Arnolfini Portrait, 1434 Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

The inscription in The Arnolfini Portrait announces the artist’s role as witness and narrator – I was here, this was the occasion – though the self-portrait says something more about the reality depicted. The liquid highlights in the eyes, the pucker of orange peel, the flecked coat of the dog, the embrasure of clear light, reflected again in the brass-framed mirror: the whole powerfully real illusion was contrived by Jan Van Eyck, transforming what he saw into what you now see here. He is there in the picture connecting our world to theirs, a pioneer breaking down frontiers.

As usual, the painter makes no spectacle of himself. Van Eyck’s self-portraits are conceivably the smallest in art, certainly the most discreet, yet their scale is in inverse ratio to their metaphysical range. The visible world appears to be outside us, viewed through the windows of the eyes, and yet it contains us all.