# On English Homophones

Robert Bridges

## ENGLISH HOMOPHONES

> Definition of homophone.

When two or more words different in origin and signification are pronounced alike, whether they are alike or not in their spelling, they are said to be homophonous, or homophones of each other. Such words if spoken without context are of ambiguous signification. Homophone is strictly a relative term, but it is convenient to use it absolutely, and to call any word of this kind a homophone.[1]

Homophony is between words as significant sounds, but it is needful to state that homophonous words must be different words, else we should include a whole class of words which are not true homophones. Such words as draft, train, board, have each of them separate meanings as various and distinct as some true homophones; for instance, a draught of air, the miraculous draught of fishes, the draught of a ship, the draft of a picture, or a draught of medicine, or the present draft of this essay, though it may ultimately appear medicinal, are, some of them, quite as distinct objects or notions as, for instance, vane and vein are: but the ambiguity of draft, however spelt, is due to its being the name of anything that is drawn; and since there are many ways of drawing things, and different things are drawn in different ways, the same word has come to carry very discrepant significations.

Though such words as these[2] are often inconveniently and even distressingly ambiguous, they are not homophones, and are therefore excluded from my list: they exhibit different meanings of one word, not the same sound of different words: they are of necessity present, I suppose, in all languages, and corresponding words in independent languages will often develop exactly corresponding varieties of meaning. But since the ultimate origin and derivation of a word is sometimes uncertain, the scientific distinction cannot be strictly enforced.

> False homophones.

Now, wherever the same derivation of any two same-sounding words is at all doubtful, such words are practically homophones:—and again in cases where the derivation is certainly the same, yet, if the ultimate meanings have so diverged that we cannot easily resolve them into one idea, as we always can draft, these also may be practically reckoned as homophones.

Continent, adjective and substantive, is an example of absolute divergence of meaning, inherited from the Latin; but as they are different parts of speech, I allow their plea of identical derivation and exclude them from my list. On the other hand, the substantive beam is an example of such a false homophone as I include. Beam may signify a balk of timber, or a ray of light. Milton's address to light begins

> O first created beam

and Chaucer has

> As thikke as motes in the sonne-beam,

and this is the commonest use of the word in poetry, and probably in literature: Shelley has

Then the bright child the plumèd seraph came
And fixed its blue and beaming eyes on mine.

But in Tyndal's gospel we read

> Why seest thou a mote in thy brother's eye and perceivest not

> the beam that is in thine own eye?

The word beam is especially awkward here,[3] because the beam that is proper to the eye is not the kind of beam which is intended. The absurdity is not excused by our familiarity, which Shakespeare submitted to, though he omits the incriminating eye:

You found his mote; the king your mote did see,
But I a beam do find in each of three.

And yet just before he had written

So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not
To those fresh morning drops upon the rose,
As thy eye-beams when their fresh rays have smote
The night of dew that on my cheeks down flows.

Let alone the complication that mote is also a homophone, and that outside Gulliver's travels one might as little expect to find a house-beam as a castle-moat in a man's eye, the confusion of beam is indefensible, and the example will serve three purposes: first to show how different significations of the same word may make practical homophones, secondly the radical mischief of all homophones, and thirdly our insensibility towards an absurdity which is familiar: but the absurdity is no less where we are accustomed to it than where it is unfamiliar and shocks us.

> Tolerance due to habit.

And we are so accustomed to homophones in English that they do not much offend us; we do not imagine their non-existence, and most people are probably unaware of their inconvenience. It might seem that to be perpetually burdened by an inconvenience must be the surest way of realizing it, but through habituation our practice is no doubt full of unconscious devices for avoiding these ambiguities: moreover, inconveniences to which we are born are very lightly taken: many persons have grown up to manhood blind of one eye without being aware of their disability; and others who have no sense of smell or who cannot hear high sounds do not miss the sense that they lack; and so I think it may be with us and our homophones.

But since if all words were alike in sound there would be no spoken language, the differentiation of the sound of words is of the essence of speech, and it follows that the more homophones there are in any language, the more faulty is that language as a scientific and convenient vehicle of speech. This will be illustrated in due course: the actual condition of English with respect to homophones must be understood and appreciated before the nature of their growth and the possible means of their mitigation will seem practical questions.

> Great number.

The first essential, then, is to know the extent and nature of the mischief; and this can only be accomplished by setting out the homophones in a table before the eye. The list below is taken from a 'pronouncing dictionary' which professes not to deal with obsolete words, and it gives over 800 ambiguous sounds; so that, since these must be at least doublets, and many of them are triplets or quadruplets, we must have something between 1,600 and 2,000 words of ambiguous meaning in our ordinary vocabulary.[4]

Now it is variously estimated that 3,000 to 5,000 words is about the limit of an average educated man's talking vocabulary, and since the 1,600 are, the most of them, words which such a speaker will use (the reader can judge for himself) it follows that he has a foolishly imperfect and clumsy instrument.

As to what proportion 1,700 (say) may be to the full vocabulary of the language—it is difficult to estimate this because the dictionaries vary so much. The word homophone is not recognized by Johnson or by Richardson: Johnson under homo- has six derivatives of Herbert Spencer's favourite word homogeneous, but beside these only four other words with this Greek affix. Richardson's dictionary has an even smaller number of such entries. Jones has 11 entries of homo-, and these of only five words, but the Oxford dictionary, besides 50 words noted and quoted beginning with homo-, has 64 others with special articles.

Dr. Richard Morris estimated the number of words in an English dictionary as 100,000: Jones has 38,000 words, exclusive of proper names, and I am told that the Oxford dictionary will have over 300,000. Its 114 homo- words will show how this huge number is partly supplied.

Before the reader plunges into the list, I should wish to fortify his spirit against premature despair by telling him that in my tedious searching of the dictionary for these words I was myself cheered to find how many words there were which are not homophones.

## LIST OF HOMOPHONES

This list, the object of which is to make the reader easily acquainted with the actual defect of the language in this particular, does not pretend to be complete or scientific; and in the identification of doubtful words the clue was dictated by brevity. s., v., and adj. mean substantive, verb, and adjective. The sections were made to aid the conspectus.

The main indictment is contained in sections i, ii, and iii. These three sections contain 505 entries, involving some 1,075 words.

The homophones in the other sections, iv, v, vi, vii, viii and ix, are generally of such a kind that they would not of themselves constitute a very peculiar case against the English language; but their addition to the main list does very much strengthen the case. One intention in isolating them from the main list was to prevent their contaminating it with their weaker quality; but their separate classification crosses and sometimes overrides that more general distinction. Section iv has some literary interest; vi is inconsistent; the other sections are more or less scientific. These six sections contain some 330 entries involving about 700 words, so that the total of words involved is about 1,775.

The order in this section is that of the phonetic alphabet.

### I. THE MAIN LIST OF HOMOPHONES

> arc, ark.

> arm (limb), arm (weapon).

> alms, arms.

> aunt, ant, arn't.

> arch (s.), arch (adj.).

> eye, ay, I.

> idol, idle, idyll.

> aisle, isle, I'll.

> eyelet, islet.

> our, hour.

> bark (dog), bark (tree), bark (boat).

> balm, barm.

> bite, bight.

> buy, by, bye.

> bough, bow, bow (of ship).

> bound (leap), bound (limit), bound (fr. bind).

> bank (ground), bank (money).

> barren, baron.

> barrow (hill), barrow (wheel-b.).

> bat (club), bat (vespertilio).

> batter (s.), batter (v.).

> buck (various roots and senses).

> bustle (hurry), bustle (dress).

> but, butt (tub), butt (v.).

> bale (ill), bale (pack), bail (bis).

> base, bass.

> bate, bait.

> beck (and nod), beck (a brook).

> bell, belle.

> bury, berry.

> bear (s.), bare (adj.), bear, bare (v.).

> berth, birth.

> bee, be.

> beat, beet.

> beetle (insect), beetle (hammer).

> beach, beech.

> bier, beer.

> blow (a stroke), blow (of wind).

> bow, beau.

> bogy, bogie.

> bole, bowl.

> bolt (a weapon), bolt (sift), bolt (run).

> bore (perforate), bore (tidal), bore (fr. bear), boar.

> board, bawd, bored.

> ball, bawl.

> born, borne.

> boy, buoy.

> boil (s.), boil (v.).

> box (tree), box (receptacle), box (v.).

> bridal, bridle.

> bray (of donkey), bray (to pound), brae.

> break, brake (fern), brake (of carriages, bis).

> braze (to solder), braze (to brazen), braise (to stew), braes.

> breach, breech.

> breeze (the wind), breeze (a fly), breeze (cinders).

> broach, brooch.

> hue, hew.

> die (v.), dye, die (cast).

> down (dune), down (fluff), down (adv.).

> doubt, dout.

> dam (mother), dam (obstruct), damn.

> duck (bird), duck (dear), duck (stuff), duck (v.).

> dun (colour), dun (importune), done.

> date (fruit), date (datum).

> dean, dene.

> deer, dear.

> desert, dessert.

> due, dew.

> doe, dough.

> dock (plant), dock (basin), dock (shear).

> drill (sow), drill (bore), drill (training).

> drupe, droop.

> jar (vase), jar (discord).

> jamb, jam.

> jet (mineral), jet (squirt).

> gin (drink), gin (snare), jinn.

> there, their.

> the, thee.

> eh! aye (ever).

> ale, ail.

> eight, ait or eyot, ate (fr. eat).

> egg, egg (to incite).

> elder (tree), elder (senior).

> air, heir, ere, e'er.

> airship, heirship.

> aery, airy.

> earn, urn, erne (eagle).

> alight (adj.), alight (v.).

> ascent, assent.

> foul, fowl.

> fallow (untilled), fallow (colour).

> fane, feign, fain.

> faint, feint.

> fast (eccl.), fast (adj. various).

> fate, fête.

> fell (fierce), fell (skin), fell (hill), fell (fr. fall).

> fellow, felloe.

> ferule, ferrule.

> fair, fare [doublet], phare.

> fir, fur.

> feet, feat (s.), feat (adj. obs.).

> filter, philtre.

> fit (befit), fit (conflict), fytte [obs.].

> flag (v.), flag (ensign), flag (plant), flag (-stone).

> flee, flea.

> flow, floe.

> flock (herd), flock (of wool).

> flue (chimney), flue (velu), flew (fr. fly).

> fluke (fish), fluke (of anchor), fluke (slang word).

> fold (wrap), fold (of sheep), foaled.

> four, fore, for.

> forego, forgo, and other compounds.

> fourth, forth.

> foil (s.), foil (v.), foil (fencer's).

> fray (ravel), fray (combat).

> fret (eat away), fret (adorn), fret (on lute).

> freeze, frieze (archt.), frieze (cloth), frees (fr. free).

> gamble, gambol,

> gum (resin), gum (teeth).

> gage, gauge,

> gate, gait.

> gird (encircle), gird (revile).

> guild, gild.

> guilt, gilt.

> glare, glair (white of egg), + glary, glairy.

> gore (pierce), gore (triangle), gore (blood).

> groin, groyne (breakwater).

> great, grate (s.), grate (v.).

> heart, hart.

> high, hie.

> hide (v.), hide (skin), hied.

> hack (hew), hack (hackney).

> hamper (impede), hamper (hanaper).

> hail! hail (snow), hale (adj.), hale (haul).

> helm (of ship), helm (helmet).

> hair, hare.

> heel, heal, he'll.

> here, hear.

> hymn, him.

> hole, whole, + holy, wholly, holey.

> home, holm.

> hoar, whore, haw.

> hoard, horde,

> hawk (bird), hawk (v. of hawker), hawk (hoquet).

> hall, haul.

> halt (v.), halt (adj.).

> horse, hoarse.

> hock (of horse), hock (wine).

> hop (jump), hop (plant).

> hue, hew.

> humorous, humerus.

> even (s.), even (adj.).

> ear, ear (plough), ear (of corn).

> yoke, yolk.

> yew, ewe, you.

> ure, ewer, your.

> card (s.), card (v.).

> cask, casque.

> cast, caste.

> cart, carte, quart (cards and fencing).

> count (s.), count (v.).

> counter (opp.), counter (of shop), counter (in games), &c.

> couch (coucher), couch (grass).

> caddy (lad), caddy (box).

> can (s.), can (v.).

> cannon, canon bis.

> currant, current.

> curry (food), curry (comb).

> colonel, kernel.

> cape (dress), cape (headland).

> caper (skip), caper (plant).

> case (event), case (receptacle).

> cashier (s.), cashier (v.).

> key, quay.

> keen (adj.), keen (v.).

> cue, queue.

> climb, clime.

> cleek, clique.

> coal, cole.

> cope (v.), cope (s.).

> coat, cote.

> core, corps, caw.

> cork, caulk.

> call, caul.

> corn (grain), corn (horny growth).

> course, coarse, corse.

> cobble (to patch), cobble (boat), cobble (-stones).

> cock (s. and v.), cock (of hay).

> cockle (v.), cockle (s. var.).

> creak, creek.

> cricket (insect), cricket (game).

> cruel, crewel.

> cruise, cruse, crews.

> coombe (valley), coom (dry measure).

> choir, quire (of paper).

> quiver (v.), quiver (s.).

> queen, quean [obs.].

> last (adj., verb), last (s.)

> lye (s.), lie (v.), lie (s. and n.).

> lyre, liar.

> lichen, liken.

> light (s.), light (not heavy), and hence lighten, lighten.

> lack, lac, lakh.

> lap (lick up), lap (fold), lap (knees).

> lay (s., bis), lay (v.).

> lake (pond), lake (colour).

> let (allow), let (lease, v.), let (hinder, obs.).

> lee, lea.

> leaf, lief.

> league (s.), league (v. and s.)

> leak, leek.

> lean (v.), lean (adj.).

> leech (sucker and doctor), leech (of sail).

> leave (quit), leave (permit).

> limp (adj.), limp (v.).

> link (chain), link (torch), also golf-links,

> list (listen), list (heel over), list (of flannel).

> liver (organ), liver (who lives).

> lo! low (adj.), low (of cow's voice).

> load, lode, lowed,

> lone, loan.

> lock (of door), lock (of hair), loch.

> long (adj.), long (v.).

> lorn, lawn,

> lute, loot.

> mast (of ship), mast (beech-m.).

> march (step), march (boundary), March (month).

> mine (s.), mine (poss. pron.).

> mite, might (s.), might (v.), [and adj. -y].

> mitre (headdress), mitre (carpentry, &c.).

> mass (quantity), mass (office).

> match (equal), match (mèche).

> muff (dress), muff (a stupid).

> may (month), may (maid, obs.), may (v.).

> male, mail (coat of), mail (post).

> mane, main.

> mace (staff), mace (spice).

> maze, maize, Mays (pl. of month).

> mare, mayor.

> meed, mead (meadow), mead (drink).

> mean (intend), mean (intermediate), mean (poor), mien (countenance).

> meet, meat, mete (adj. and v.).

> mere (pool), mere (adj.).

> mint (herb), mint (coining).

> miss (fail), Miss.

> mew (cage), mew (bird), mew (of cat).

> mute (adj.), mute (of birds).

> muse (think), Muse, mews (stable), mews (fr. mew).

> mote, moat.

> mow (various senses), mot (French).

> mole (animal), mole (of skin), mole (breakwater).

> mould (to model), mould (earth), mould (rust).

> maul (disfigure), Mall (place), mahl (-stick).

> morn, mourn, and morning.

> moor (country), Moor (race)

> night, knight.

> none, nun.

> need, knead, knee'd.

> neat (s.), neat (adj.).

> no, know.

> not, knot.

> oar, ore, or, o'er, awe.

> augur, auger.

> all, awl, orle (heraldry).

> altar, alter.

> oral, aural.

> ought (zero), ought (pp. of owe), ort [obs.].

> par, pas (faus).

> pie (pica), pie (dish).

> pale (pole), pale (pallid), pail.

> pile (heap), pile (stake), pile (hair).

> pine (v.), pine (tree).

> pound (weight), pound (enclosure), pound (to bruise).

> pounce (v.), pounce (=pumice).

> pallet, palette, palate.

> paten, patten, pattern.

> pulse (beat), pulse (pease).

> punch (strike), punch (drink), Punch (and Judy).

> page (of bk.), page (boy).

> pane, pain.

> peck (measure), peck (v.).

> pelt (to throw), pelt (skin).

> pen (writing), pen (inclose).

> pair, pear, pare.

> pearl, purl (flow), purl (knitting).

> pique, peak.

> peal, peel.

> peep (to look), peep (chirp).

> piece, peace.

> peach (fruit), peach (impeach).

> peer (to look), peer (s.), pier.

> pill (ball), pill (to pillage).

> pink (a flower), pink (a colour), pink (to pierce).

> pip (a seed), pip (a disease), pip (on cards).

> pitch (s.), pitch (to fall, &c.).

> plight (pledge), plight or plite (to plait), and 'sad plight'.

> plat (of ground), plait.

> plum, plumb.

> plump (adj.), plump (to fall heavily).

> plane (tree), plain [both various].

> plot (of ground), plot (stratagem), + verbs.

> pole, poll.

> poach, (eggs), poach (steal game).

> pore (of skin), pore (top. over), paw.

> potter (v.), potter (s.).

> pall (v.), pall (cloak), pawl (mechanics).

> pry (inquisitive), pry (to prise open).

> prise, prize.

> pray, prey.

> prune (fruit), prune (s.).

> rye, wry.

> rime, rhyme.

> right, write, wright, rite.

> rabbit, rabbet (carpentry).

> rack [various], wrack.

> racket, racquet.

> rally (assemble), rally (=raillery).

> rank (s.), rank (rancid).

> rap, wrap.

> rash (s.), rash (adj.).

> ruff, rough.

> rum (queer), rum (drink), rhumb (naut.).

> rung (s.), and past pp. rung, wrung.

> rush (s.), rush (v.).

> rape (seed), rape (ravish), rape (divn. of county, obs.).

> race (family), race (root), race (that is run).

> rate (proportion), rate (to chide).

> rut (furrow), rut (of animals).

> rake (tool), rake (a prodigal), rake (of a ship).

> rail (fence), rail (bird).

> rain, reign, rein.

> raise, raze.

> reck, wreck.

> rent (paymt.), rent (s., tear), rent (fr. rend).

> rest (repose), rest (remainder), wrest.

> reed, read.

> reef (of rocks), reef (of sails).

> reek, wreak.

> reel (highland-), reel (cotton-).

> reach, retch.

> reave, reeve (naut.), reeve (bailiff, obs.).

> rifle (ransack), rifle (s.v., groove).

> rear (raise), rear (arrière).

> rig (of ship), rig (prank, riggish), rig (-s of barley).

> rick (of corn), rick wrick (strain).

> ring, wring.

> repair (mend), repair (resort, v.).

> row (oaring), row (s. of things in line), roe (of fish), roe (fem. deer).

> roll [various], rôle.

> rock (stone), rock (v.), roc.

> rocket (plant), rocket (firework).

> rue (plant), rue (v. of ruth).

> rude (adj.), rood (s.), rued (fr. rue).

> room, rheum.

> root, route.

> rout, route (military).

> sign, sine (trigonom.).

> site, sight, cite.

> size (magnitude), size (glue).

> sough, sow.

> sound (noise), sound (to fathom), sound (adj.), sound (strait of sea), sound (fish bladder).

> sack (bag), sack (to plunder), sack (wine).

> swallow (a willow), sallow (pale colour).

> sap (of trees), sap (mine).

> sum, some.

> sun, son + sunny, sonnie.

> sage (plant), sage (adj.).

> sale, sail.

> sell, cell.

> sense, cense.

> censual, sensual.

> surge, serge.

> surf, serf.

> scent, cent, sent (fr. send).

> session, cession.

> sea, see.

> seed, cede.

> seal (animal), ciel or ceil, seal (sign).

> seam, seem.

> sear, sere, cere, seer.

> serial, cereal.

> signet, cygnet.

> cist (box), cyst (tumour, Gr.).

> scar (of wound), scar (a rock).

> skull, scull.

> scale (shell), scale (of balance), scale (of stairs).

> scald (burn), skald (poet, Norse).

> scrub (of shrubs), scrub (v.).

> sledge (vehicle), sledge (-hammer).

> slight, sleight.

> slay, sleigh (sledge).

> slate (s.), slate (v., abuse).

> sloe, slow.

> slop (puddle), slop (loose garment).

> slot (track), slot (bar).

> sole (adj.), soul, sole (a fish).

> sow, sew.

> saw (tool), soar, sore, saw (maxim), saw (fr. see).

> soil (ground), soil (defile), soil (v., of horses).

> spar (beam), spar (mineral), spar (to box).

> salter (who salts), psalter.

> source, sauce.

> spell (incantation), spell (letters), spell (turn of work).

> spill (upset), spill (match).

> spit (v.), spit (roasting), spit (of land).

> spray (drizzle), spray (= sprig).

> spruce (tree), spruce (adj.)

> style, stile.

> stud (nail), stud (of horses).

> stake (post), steak, stake (deposit).

> step, steppe.

> stair, stare.

> stern (adj.), stern (of ship).

> steal, steel, stele.

> steep (adj.), steep (v.).

> steer (direct), steer (young ox).

> still (tranquil), still (distil).

> stalk (stem), stalk (v.), stork.

> story, storey.

> strand (shore), strand (fibre).

> strain (v. and s.), strain (a breed).

> strait (narrow), straight (upright).

> stroke (a blow), stroke (fondle).

> stoup, stoop.

> shed (scatter), shed (shelter).

> tart (adj.), tart (a pie).

> tyre (of wheel), tire (fatigue), tire (attire), + tier (who ties).

> time, thyme.

> tap (to strike), tap (short pipe).

> tale, tail, tail (estate in t.).

> tender (adj.), tender (s., attender).

> tent (pavilion), tent (plug of lint, s. and v.), tent (wine).

> tare, tear (v.).

> teem, team.

> tear (eye), tier.

> tick (bedding), tick (sheep), tick (clock), tic (spasm), tick (credit).

> till (cash drawer), till (until).

> tilt (v., to make aslant), tilt (tourney), tilt (of caravan).

> tip (top), tip (make to slant), tip (a gift).

> toe, tow (hemp), tow (draw a boat).

> two, too, to.

> toll (lax), toll (of bells).

> taut, taught, tort.

> toil (labour), toil (a snare).

> top (summit), top (a toy).

> truck (vehicle), truck (naut.), truck (barter).

> trump (trumpet), trump (at cards).

> trunk (box), trunk (of tree), trunk (of elephant).

> tray, trait.

> trace (track), trace (strap).

> chair, chare.

> chap (crack), chap (chapman), chap (cheek).

> char (burn), char (fish), char (-woman).

> chop (with hatchet), chop (and change).

> chuck (chick), chuck (strike gently).

> chase (hunt), chase (enchase), chase (printer's case), chase (groove).

> vice (depravity), vice (clench), vice (deputy).

> valley, valet.

> van (front of army), van (fan), van (caravan).

> vale, vail, veil.

> vain, vein, vane.

> won, one.

> wake (awake), wake (watch), wake (of ship).

> wain, wane.

> waste, waist.

> wait, weight.

> wave, waive.

> well (good), well (spring).

> wee, we.

> weak, week.

> ween, wean.

> war, wore.

> would, wood.

### II. All the following examples involve wh. > w. [5]

> ware (earthen-), ware (aware), wear, where, were.

> way, weigh, whey.

> weal (wealth), weal (a swelling), wheel.

> weald, wield, wheeled.

> while, wile.

> whine, wine,

> white, wight.

> whether, weather.

> whither, wither.

> whig, wig.

> whit, wit.

> what, wot.

> whet, wet.

> whirr, were = wer'.

> whin, win.

> whist, wist.

> which, witch, wych (elm).

### III. Group of Homophones caused by loss of trilled R. [6]

> ion, iron.

> father, farther.

> lava, larva.

> halm, harm.

> calve, carve.

> talk, torque.

> daw, door.

> flaw, floor.

> yaw, yore.

> law, lore.

> laud, lord.

> maw, more,

> gnaw, nor.

> raw, roar.

> shaw, shore.

### IV. The name of a species (of animals, plants, &c.) is often a homophone. Where there is only one alternative meaning, this causes so little inconvenience that the following names (being in that condition) have been excluded from List I. [7]

> bleak (fish), bleak (adj.).

> dace, dais.

> gull (bird), gull (s. and v.).

> carp, carp (v.).

> cod, cod (husk).

> codling, coddling (fr. coddle).

> flounder (fish), flounder (v.).

> quail (bird), quail (v.).

> lark (bird), lark (fun).

> ling (fish), ling (heather).

> mussel, muscle.

> nit, knit.

> awk, orc.

> oriole, aureole.

> pike (fish), pike (weapon).

> pout (fish), pout (v.).

> perch (fish), perch (alight).

> plaice, place.

> ray (fish), ray (of light).

> rook (bird), rook (v.).

> skua, skewer.

> skate (fish), skate (on ice).

> smelt (fish), smelt (fr. smell).

> swift (bird), swift (adj.).

> swallow (bird), swallow (throat).

> tapir, taper.

> tern, turn.

> teal (fish), teil (tree).

> thrush (bird), thrush (disease).

### V. The suffix er added to a root often makes homophones. The following are examples. (And see in List VI.)

> byre, buyer (who buys).

> butter (s.), butter (who butts).

> better (adj.), better (who bets).

> border, boarder.

> dire, dyer.

> founder (v.), founder (who founds).

> geyser, gazer.

> greater, grater (nutmeg).

> canter (pace), canter (who cants).

> medlar, meddler.

> moulder (v.), moulder (who moulds).

> pitcher (vessel), pitcher (who pitches).

> pillar, piller.

> platter, plaiter.

> plumper (adj.), plumper (s.).

> sounder (adj.), sounder (who sounds).

> cellar, seller, &c.

### VI. Words excluded from the main list for various reasons, their homophony being rightly questioned by many speakers

> actor, acta (sanctorum).

> brute, bruit.

> direst, diarist.

> descent, dissent.

> deviser, divisor.

> dual, duel.

> goffer, golfer.

> carrot, carat.

> caudle, caudal.

> choler, collar.

> compliment, complement.

> lumber, lumbar.

> lesson, lessen.

> literal, littoral.

> marshal, martial.

> minor, miner.

> manor, manner.

> medal, meddle.

> metal, mettle.

> missal, missel (thrush).

> orphan, often.

> putty, puttee.

> pedal, peddle.

> police, pelisse.

> principal, principle.

> profit, prophet.

> rigour, rigger.

> rancour, ranker.

> succour, sucker.

> sailor, sailer.

> cellar, seller.

> censor, censer.

> surplus, surplice.

> symbol, cymbal.

> skip, skep.

> tuber, tuba.

> whirl, whorl.

> wert, wort (herb, obs.).

> vial, viol.

> verdure, verger (in Jones).

### VII. Homophones due only to an inflected form of a word. Comparatives of adjectives, &c

> adze, adds.

> art (s.), art (v.).

> bard, barred.

> band, banned.

> battels, battles (bis).

> baste, based.

> baize, bays (bis).

> bent, bent (pp. bend).

> bean, been.

> blue, blew.

> bode, bowed.

> bold, bowled, bolled (obs.).

> bald, bawled.

> braid, brayed.

> bread, bred.

> brood, brewed.

> bruise, brews.

> depose, dépôts.

> divers (adj.), divers (plu.).

> dug (teat), dug (fr. dig).

> duct, ducked.

> dust, dost.

> daze, days.

> daisies, dazes (both inflected).

> doze, does (plu. of doe).

> aloud, allowed.

> fort, fought.

> found (v.), found (fr. find)

> phase, fays (pl. of fay).

> felt (stuff), felt (fr. feel)

> furze, firs, and furs.

> feed (s. and v.), fee'd.

> flatter (v.), flatter (adj.).

> phlox, flocks.

> phrase, frays.

> guise, guys (plu.).

> gaud, gored.

> gauze, gores.

> guest, guessed.

> glose, glows.

> ground (s.), ground (fr. grind).

> graze, greys.

> greaves, grieves.

> groan, grown.

> grocer, grosser.

> hire, higher.

> herd, heard.

> hist, hissed.

> hose, hoes.

> hawse (naut.), haws, &c.

> eaves, eves.

> use (v.), ewes, yews.

> candid, candied.

> clove (s.), clove (fr. cleave).

> clause, claws.

> cold, coaled.

> courser, coarser.

> court, caught.

> cause, cores, caws.

> coir, coyer (fr. coy).

> crew (s.), crew (fr. crow).

> quartz, quarts.

> lighter (s.), lighter (fr. light, adj.).

> lax, lacks, &c.

> lapse, laps, &c.

> lade (v.), laid.

> lane, lain.

> lead (mineral), led.

> left (adj.), left (fr. leave).

> Lent, leant, lent (fr. lend).

> least, leased.

> lees (of wine), leas, &c.

> lynx, links.

> mind, mined.

> madder (plant), madder (fr. mad).

> mustard, mustered.

> maid, made.

> mist, missed.

> mode, mowed.

> moan, mown.

> new, knew, &c.

> nose, knows, noes.

> aught (a whit), ought (fr. owe).

> pact, packed.

> paste, paced.

> pervade, purveyed.

> pyx, picks.

> please, pleas.

> pause, paws, pores.

> pride, pried [bis].

> prize, pries.

> praise, prays, preys.

> rouse, rows.

> rasher (bacon), rasher (fr. rash).

> raid, rayed.

> red, read (p. of to read).

> rex, wrecks, recks.

> road, rode, rowed.

> rote, wrote.

> rove (v. of rover), rove (fr. reeve).

> rose, rows (var.), roes (var.), rose (v.).

> ruse, rues (fr. rue).

> side, sighed.

> size, sighs.

> scene, seen.

> seize, seas, sees.

> sold, soled (both inflected).

> sword, soared.

> sort, sought.

> span (length), span (fr. spin).

> spoke (of wheel), spoke (fr. speak).

> stole (s.), stole (fr. steal).

> stove (s.), stove (fr. stave).

> tide, tied.

> tax, tacks (various).

> tact, tacked.

> tease, teas, tees.

> toad, towed, toed.

> told, tolled.

> tract, tracked.

> trust, trussed.

> chaste, chased (various).

> choose, chews.

> throne, thrown.

> through, threw.

> wild, wiled.

> wind (roll), whined.

> wax, whacks.

> wade, weighed.

> weld, welled.

> word, whirred.

> wilt (wither), wilt (fr. will).

> ward, warred.

> wont, won't.

> warn, worn.

### VIII. 'False homophones' [see p. [4]], doubtful doublets, &c

> beam, beam (of light).

> bit (horse), bit (piece), bit (fr. bite).

> brace, brace.

> diet, diet.

> deck (cover), deck (adorn).

> deal (various).

> dram (drink), drachm.

> drone (insect), drone (sound).

> jest, gest (romance, and obs. senses).

> jib (sail), jib (of horses).

> fine (adj., v. senses), fine (mulct).

> flower, flour.

> fleet (s.), fleet (adj.), Fleet (stream).

> grain (corn), grain (fibre).

> indite, indict.

> incense (v. =cense), incense (incite).

> kind (adj.), kind (s.).

> canvas, canvass.

> cuff (sleeve), cuff (strife).

> cousin, cozen.

> cord, chord (music).

> coin, coign.

> cotton (s.), cotton (v.).

> crank (s.), crank (adj.).

> quaver (v.), quaver (music).

> levy, levee.

> litter (brood), litter (straw).

> mantle (cloak), mantle (shelf).

> mess (confusion), mess (table).

> mussel, muscle.

> nail (unguis), nail (clavus).

> patent (open), patent (monopoly).

> pommel (s.), pummel (v.).

> refrain (v.), refrain (s., in verse).

> retort (reply), retort (chemical vessel).

> second (number), second (of time).

> squall (v.), squall (a gale).

> slab (s.), slab (adj.).

> smart (s. and v., sting), smart (adj.).

> stave (of barrel), stave (of music), [stave in (v.)].

> stick (s.), stick (v.).

> stock (stone), stock (in trade), &c.

> strut (a support), strut (to walk).

> share (division), share (plough).

> sheet (sail and clew), sheet (-anchor).

> shear (clip), sheer (clear), sheer off (deviate).

> tack (various), tack (naut.).

> ton, tun.

> wage (earnings), wage (of war).

### IX. The following words were not admitted into the main class chiefly on account of their unimportance

> ah! are.

> arse, ass.

> ask, aske (newt)

> ayah, ire.

> bah! bar, baa.

> barb, barb (horse).

> bask, basque.

> barn, barne = bairn.

> budge, budge (stuff).

> buff, buff.

> buffer, buffer.

> berg, burgh (suffixes).

> bin, bin = been.

> broke (v. of broke), broke (fr. break).

> broom, brume (fog).

> darn, darn.

> fizz, phiz.

> few, feu.

> forty, forte.

> hay, heigh!

> hem (sew), hem (v., haw).

> hollow, hollo (v.).

> inn, in.

> yawl (boat), yawl (howl).

> coup, coo.

> lamb, lam (bang).

> loaf, loaf (v. laufen).

> marry! marry (v.).

> nag (pony), nag (to gnaw), knag.

> nap (of cloth), nap (sleep).

> nay, neigh.

> oh! owe.

> ode, owed.

> oxide, ox-eyed.

> pax, packs.

> pants, pants (fr. pant).

> prose, pros (and cons).

> sink (var.), cinque.

> swayed, suede (kid).

> ternary, turnery.

> tea, tee (starting point).

> taw (to dress skins), taw (game, marbles), tore (fr. tear).

> cheap, cheep.

> tool, tulle,

> we! woe.

> ho! hoe.

The facts of the case being now sufficiently supplied by the above list, I will put my attitude towards those facts in a logical sequence under separate statements, which thus isolated will, if examined one by one, avoid the confusion that their interdependence might otherwise occasion. The sequence is thus:

> 1. Homophones are a nuisance.

> 2. They are exceptionally frequent in English.

> 3. They are self-destructive, and tend to become obsolete.

> 4. This loss impoverishes the language.

> 5. This impoverishment is now proceeding owing to the prevalence of the Southern English standard of speech.

> 6. The mischief is being worsened and propagated by the phoneticians.

> 7. The Southern English dialect has no claim to exclusive preference.

1. That homophones are a nuisance

An objector who should plead that homophones are not a nuisance might allege the longevity of the Chinese language, composed, I believe, chiefly of homophones distinguished from each other by an accentuation which must be delicate difficult and precarious. I remember that Max Müller [1864] instanced a fictitious sentence

1

Homophone is a Greek word meaning 'same-sounding', and before using the relative word in this double way I have preferred to make what may seem a needless explanation. It is convenient, for instance, to say that son and heir are both homophones, meaning that each belongs to that particular class of words which without context are of ambiguous signification: and it is convenient also to say that son and sun and heir and air are homophones without explaining that it is meant that they are mutually homophonous, which is evident. A physician congratulating a friend on the birth of his first-born might say, 'Now that you have a son and heir, see that he gets enough sun and air'.

2

Such words have no technical class-name; they are merely extreme examples of the ambiguity common to most words, which grows up naturally from divergence of meaning. True homophones are separate words which have, or have acquired, an illogical fortuitous identity.

3

It is probable that in Tyndal's time the awkwardness was not so glaring: for 'beam' as a ray of light seems to have developed its connexion with the eye since his date, in spite of his proverbial use of it in the other sense.

4

In Skeat's Etymological Dictionary there is a list of homonyms, that is words which are ambiguous to the eye by similar spellings, as homophones are to the ear by similar sounds: and that list, which includes obsolete words, has 1,600 items. 1,600 is the number of homophones which our list would show if they were all only doublets.

5

The following words in List 1 involve wr > w, write, wrach, wrap, wring, wrung, wreck, wrest, wreak, wrick.

6

Other similar words occurring in other sections are—awe, awl, ought, bawd, fought, gaud, gauze, haw, caw, cause, caught, lawn, paw, saw, sauce, sought, taut, caulk, stalk, alms, balm;—their correspondents being, oar, orle, ort (obs.), board, fort, gored, gores, hoar, core, cores, court, lorn, pore, sore, source, sort, tort, cork, stork, arms, barm.

7

Other similar proper names of species, &c., which occur in some one of the other sections of the list: ant, bat, bear, bee, beet, beetle, beech, box, breeze, date, dock, daw, duck, deer, elder, erne, fir, flea, flag, fluke, hare, horse, hawk, hop, caper, carrot, couch, cricket, currant, leech, lichen, mace, maize, mint, mole, pear, peach, pink, pie, pine, plum, plane, pulse, rabbit, rye, rush, rape, rail, reed, roe, roc, rue, sage, seal, sloe, sole, spruce, stork, thyme, char, whale, whin, yew. Also cockle.