Marian Wharton
Plain English

¶ He who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause of all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think clearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to the best there is in him, if he has to stand alone.

¶ Such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study of history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the people but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest. He must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command.

¶ The most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed, the suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of rags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity crying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love.

—EUGENE V. DEBS.

FOREWORD

Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed.

One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by a rule or set of rules.

This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no knowledge of rules as such.

In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has not resulted in the improvement of the student.

The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will never forget the application of these principles to the use of the written and spoken word.

The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means of which he may master all other sciences.

The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use.

It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules.

The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny.

It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the Education of the Workers by the Workers."

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PLAIN ENGLISH
Lesson I

Open Letter

Dear Comrade:

You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in the grade school.

For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them in the development of expression in language.

We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, fluently and correctly—in other words to speak and write good English.

Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you a growing sense of power.

Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find helpful.

1st. Be Systematic. Find some time each day which you can regularly spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed time.

2d. Concentrate. By this we mean that when you study, you should do it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere.

3d. Have Faith in Yourself. Do not be easily discouraged. You have the power to master this subject and you will. You will find it of immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are studying them. What they have done, you will do.

4th. Go Slowly and Surely. Do not skim through these lessons. Be sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and think for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service.

5th. Get a Note-Book. Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express.

If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open wider the door of opportunity for you,—our comrade,—The People's College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

GOOD ENGLISH—WHAT IS IT?

1. People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an impression and using "good" English.

The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not using good English.

2. Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to the standards of usage.

We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day business life—the life of the work-a-day world—and there is a place also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion—the heights of human endeavor.

3. There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, and as usage changes, the rules change.

But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets your need and use it correctly.

Do not strive for effect, strive for effective expression.

USE YOUR DICTIONARY

4. Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his command as many thousands?

We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words and phrases largely made up of current slang.

Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it.

You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you get acquainted with it.

Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion.

OUR LANGUAGE

5. Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her fellows is through the sense of touch.

Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it.

WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK

6. Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as the child grows he begins to think, then he feels the need of a more effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand why you are glad, by these signs and gestures?

7. To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of language. So the language of words grew up out of the need to communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world.

8. Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling. It has grown out of our need for expression.

A word is a symbol of an idea. It is a sound or combination of sounds which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people.

Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his thoughts.

Exercise 1

Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be expressed without words:

1. I am glad.

2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom.

3. I am hungry.

4. I am hungry for the chance for an education.

5. Come.

6. Come, let us reason together.

7. I am afraid.

8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace.

9. Go.

10. Go, search the world over for the truth.

11. I am disgusted.

12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves.

13. I am tired.

14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades.

OUR EXPRESSION

9. Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers have expressed it:

Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read means—that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and fancy and imagination—to the company of saint and sage, of the wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments—that it enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?—Lowell.

Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave, ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a good book can never be wholly miserable.—Hillis.

Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the words with which to express your ideas?

10. The mastery of words gives; first, the ability to understand the spoken or written thoughts of others; second, the ability to adequately express our own thoughts; and third, the ability to think clearly and to grow in our intellectual life.

A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is all that the study of English Grammar comprises—the study of English words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling.

THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD

11. We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability to think and the need for expression. But we first thought! So, in order to express yourself clearly you must first think clearly. Any thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words.

This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words.

The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who will place in your hands the key to a new world.

A COMPLETE THOUGHT

12. When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas. For example, I say man, and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any man. But if I say, Man works, then I have expressed a thought. I have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought.

So we express our thoughts by groups of words. The very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain two words. If I say men, fire, flowers, and stop, you wonder what I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, work, burns, bloom, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; but, when I say, Men work, Fire burns, Flowers bloom, you understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence.

13. If we say, Go or Wait, in the form of a command or entreaty, the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself. But this is only because you, who are to do the going or the waiting, is clearly implied. The words go or wait, by themselves, do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that You go or You wait is the intended meaning. With the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought.

But will any two words make a sentence—express a complete thought?

14. Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not?

Busy men.

Men travel.

Snow flies.

Blue sky.

Red flag.

Rustling trees.

Workers strike.

Bees sting.

Grass grows.

Cold winds.

Green fields.

Happy children.

Busy men does not express a complete thought. We are wondering busy men do what? But, men travel is a complete thought. It makes sense and forms a sentence, and tells us what men do. In the words, busy men, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it. In the two words, men travel, we have spoken the name men and we have told what they do.

If we were walking down the street together we might say:

The street is crowded to-day.

Does the open road attract you?

See the jostling crowds.

Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say:

Two classes have always existed.

To which class do you belong?

Join your class in the struggle.

In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence.

15. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.

Exercise 2

Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

16. We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, Men work, we have these two parts; men which is the part about which something is said, and work which tells what men do.

The part about which something is said is called the subject.

In this sentence, Men work, men, therefore, is the subject, for it names that about which something is said.

17. The part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate.

Therefore in this sentence, Men work, work is the predicate. In the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, thus, Birds fly.

Ships sail.

Soldiers fight.

Flowers fade.

Horses neigh.

Flags wave.

Snow comes.

War rages.

Winds blow.

Fish swim.

18. We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say:

The stately ships sail proudly away.

The war in Europe rages furiously.

The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad.

Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate,—Ships sail, War rages, Soldiers fight.

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate.

Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.

The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate:

Ships sail.

Tides flow.

Stars shine.

Rain falls.

Children play.

Nature sleeps.

Waves break.

War rages.

Birds sing.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, as in the sentence,

1. Our success lies in solidarity.

2. New occasions teach new duties.

3. Two classes exist in the world.

4. Labor creates all wealth.

5. The workers fight all battles.

6. Our time calls for earnest deeds.

7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life.

8. Ignorance bars the path to progress.

9. Few people think for themselves.

10. Hope stirs us to action.

SPELLING
LESSON 1

Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word. There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used.

Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound.

There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing.

The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure.

The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary.

Monday

Mode

English

Grammar

Expression

Complete

Tuesday

Language

Emotion

Group

Mastery

Dictionary

Wednesday

Thought

Symbol

Ability

Idea

Knowledge

Thursday

Subject

Predicate

Vocabulary

Practice

History

Friday

Memory

Sentence

Write

Right

Purpose

Saturday

Propose

Growth

Learn

Teach

Pronounce

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 2

Dear Comrade:

Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs.

So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.

Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle.

We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. Brotherhood, justice, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.

You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours.

Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day.

Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

19. We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?

Two classes have always existed.

To which class do you belong?

Join your class in the struggle.

When I say, Two classes have always existed, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.

When I say, To which class do you belong? I am asking a question.

When I say, Join your class in the struggle, I am giving a command or making a request.

20. These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.

An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.

21. Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example:

Hurrah! Freedom is coming!

This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.

Oh! Why should war continue?

Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation.

Come! Keep your courage up.

In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation.

An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.

In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes.

The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind.

22. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.

Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.

The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period.

Exercise 1

Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an a in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a q for question; the imperative sentences with a c for command; and the exclamatory with an e for exclamation.

1. ...... Books are the true levelers.

2. ...... Put not your trust in princes.

3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine.

4. ...... What are the rights of a child?

5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great.

6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free.

7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own?

8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream?

9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat.

10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom!

11. ...... Do the majority want social justice?

12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart.

13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace!

14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit.

15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country?

16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own!

17. ...... Claim your right to the best.

18. ...... What is the highest good?

19. ...... Workers of the world, unite!

20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

WORDS—THEIR USES

23. We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words parts of speech. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts.

There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas.

24. Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.

There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.

THE NAMES OF THINGS

25. What a word does determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for man, boy, tree, animal, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the names of things.

Every word which is used as a name of something is called a noun. This word noun is derived from the Latin word which means name, so it is quite the same thing as saying name. Notice the following sentences:

Boys run.

Fish swim.

Horses neigh.

Soldiers march.

Flags wave.

Flowers fade.

Girls study.

Winds blow.

Men work.

All of the words used like boys, girls, fish, horses, soldiers, flag, winds, flowers and men, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are nouns. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons.

The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra. We have six nouns in this sentence, palace, kings, Moors, Granada, Spain and Alhambra, but the noun palace is the noun which is the subject—the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. Palace is the subject; and was called is the predicate in this sentence.

26. A noun is a word used as the name of something.

Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.

In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns:

The fire in the grate, the lamp by the bedside, the water in the tumbler, the fly on the ceiling above, the flower in the vase on the table, all things have their history and can reveal to us nature's invisible forces.

Exercise 2

Underscore every noun in the following quotation:

The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man himself—his mind and his body—has been developing. Men are marvelous little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal.—McMillan.

WORDS THAT ASSERT

27. After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things did. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.

So the words that tell what things do, become the second class of words. These words we call verbs. The word verb, like the word noun, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word verbum means the word; and the verb is practically the word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence.

Notice the following sentences:

Men work.

Flowers fade.

Snow flies.

Winds blow.

In these sentences, the words work, fade, flies and blow, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences.

28. Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

The men are working.

The boy has been studying.

In the first sentence it takes two words, are working, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, has been studying. These groups of words are called verb phrases.

29. A verb is a word that asserts.

A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.

The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult.

For example:

The sun shines.

The man walks.

The boys strike.

We very easily see that shine, walk and strike are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:

The sun shines brightly.

The man walks for his health.

The boys strike the dog.

Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state how and why the action is performed, or the object towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, shine and walks and strike are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about how or why or upon what the action is performed.

30. Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a name it is a noun; when it is used as an asserting word it is a verb. Note the following sentences:

The play made the child tired.

The children play in the yard.

In the first sentence play is a noun, the subject of the verb made. In the second sentence play is the verb, telling what the children do. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.

31. Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example:

The dog belongs to the man.

The girl is happy.

In these sentences belongs and is are the verbs. Belongs asserts or shows the relation between the dog and the man. Is shows the relation between the girl and happy. If we simply say girl and happy, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, The girl is happy, we are asserting something, and the word is makes the assertion.

Or when we say, The girl was happy, or The girl will be or may be happy, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase was or will be or may be, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject girl and the descriptive word happy. You will observe that the verbs will be and may be are composed of more than one word and are verb phrases.

We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb.

Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word does decides what it is—to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.

32. Remember:—

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.

Every sentence must express a complete thought.

Every sentence must contain a verb.

A noun is the name of something.

A verb is a word that asserts.

What a word does determines what it is.

Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in italics.

Slowly, painfully, proceeds the struggle of man against the power of Mammon. The past is written in tears and blood. The future is dim and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle is not in doubt. Freedom will conquer slavery, truth will prevail over error, justice will triumph over injustice, the light will vanquish the darkness; and humanity will rise in the glory of universal brotherhood.—Warren.

Exercise 3

Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation:

The Dream of Labor: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent.

It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue.

A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play.

The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith—the faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us win.—Oscar Leonard.

Exercise 4

We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line, the verbs with two lines:

1. They man the boats.

2. The man has a boat.

3. The women pass this way.

4. They held the pass for hours.

5. Little children work in the mines.

6. The work of the world is done by machinery today.

7. The armies will cross the bridge.

8. He built a cross of rude stones.

9. The leopard cannot change its spots.

10. We will force a change in the law.

Exercise 5

In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word not, as in I do not obey. Do obey is the verb phrase. We will learn to what part of speech not belongs a little later.

I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK

"Captain, what do you think," I asked,
"Of the part your soldiers play?"
The Captain answered, "I do not think—
I do not think, I obey."

"Do you think your conscience was meant to die,
And your brains to rot away?"
The Captain answered, "I do not think—
I do not think, I obey."

"Do you think you should shoot a patriot down,
And help a tyrant slay?"
The Captain answered, "I do not think—
I do not think, I obey."

"Then if this is your soldier's code," I cried,
"You're a mean, unmanly crew;
And with all your feathers and gilt and braid,
I am more of a man than you;

"For whatever my lot on earth may be
And whether I swim or sink,
I can say with pride, 'I do not obey—
I do not obey, I think.'"

—Ernest Crosby.

SPELLING
LESSON 2

The twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are a, e, i, o and u. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet are consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs.

Consonant is from the Latin con, meaning with, and sono—I sound. So it means literally I sound with.

The consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal organs. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always "sounded with" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in forming words or syllables.

In English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the different consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x and z, by themselves and you will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use of the vocal organs—the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.—in making these various sounds.

W and y are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. W and y are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel sound as in awe, new, joy, eye, etc. Y is sometimes used as a vowel by itself as in by, cry, etc. W and y are consonants when they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the same syllable as in wine, twine, yield and year.

Look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction.

Monday

Reason

Evolution

Justice

Thorough

Beauty

Tuesday

Assertive

Review

Surprise

Basis

Separate

Wednesday

Interrogative

Period

Capital

Capitol

Function

Thursday

Example

Contain

Imperative

Question

Speech

Friday

Method

Various

Familiar

Industry

Alphabet

Saturday

Travel

Sense

Cents

Sail

Sale

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 3

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of speech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is sufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the evolution of language.

You will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been added to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the English language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of speech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs.

The object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts—facts which may or may not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other science. It deals with words, something which we use every day.

You do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study grammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use to every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their place or position in life may be.

Remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar. "Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language." We do not say, "You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar," but we say "The common usage among those who use good English is thus and so." If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage, then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common usage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this more sensible way of spelling words.

So think while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See why the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not need to learn them—you know them already. The study of any language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order.

So apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in every particular.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS

33. When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world in which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that of names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was of words to tell what these things do, and so we have verbs. But primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words.

The objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for man, but when we say man that is not sufficient to describe the many different kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black men, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of men in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these different types and also indicate which man we mean.

34. So we have a class of words which are called adjectives. Adjective is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin word ad, meaning to, and the Latin word jecto, which means to throw; hence an adjective is a word thrown to or added to a noun.

If you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their qualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some are weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to different men. And we separate or group them into classes as they resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities. Things are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose qualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that both are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is red and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we separate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we have a class of words, adjectives, which describe these various qualities.

35. We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we say trees, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees in general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular trees, as for example: these trees, or those trees, or eight trees or nine trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are speaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives tall or beautiful express, but they limit the use of the word trees in its application. So we have our definition of the adjective.

36. An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its meaning.

Exercise 1

Underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also the nouns and verbs in this quotation.

Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth, for they either descend or climb.

They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes, through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and creaky stairs of wood—and some go down to the cellar, and some to the grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny.

They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run—they are quiet, slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their cadence to the ears of the one who stands still.

But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red iron gate.—From The Walker. Giovannitti.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

37. From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's need of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few classes. We name the things about us; we invent words to tell what these things do; we have another class of words which describe the things which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words for which we also find great need.

When we come to tell what things do, we find that we need words which will tell us how or where or when these things are done. Notice the following sentences:

The men work busily.

The men work late.

The men work now.

The men work here.

The men work hard.

The men work well.

The men work inside.

The men work more.

We would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we said simply, The men work, but each of these words which we have added, like busily, hard, late, etc., adds something to the meaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is asserted by the verb, for they show how and when and where and how much the men work.

38. We call this class of words adverbs, because they are added to verbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns. Adverb means literally to the verb.

An adverb will always answer one of these questions: how? when? how long? how often? how much? how far? or how late? If you want to find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and the word that answers it will be the adverb.

39. An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

The book is very long.

Too many people never think.

Notice here that the adverbs very and too modify the adjectives long and many.

40. Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following sentences:

He speaks very distinctly.

He walks too slowly.

Here the adverbs very and too are used with the adverbs distinctly and slowly, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a part of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe the action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb.

41. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Exercise 2

Underscore all adverbs in the following sentences:

1. He will not come today.

2. Here and now is the day of opportunity.

3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept forward.

4. The room was very quiet and still.

5. He was too weary to go farther.

6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to express himself eloquently.

7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing squad.

8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and courageously for the education of the masses.

9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present system of society.

10. He said "The school imprisons the children physically, intellectually and morally."

WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS

42. Now we come to study another class of words which are also very necessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You inquire of a stranger, "Can you tell me who lives in the house on the corner?"

Notice the words you and me and who. You could not call the stranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say you. And if you used your own name instead of me, he would not recognize it, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little word who.

If you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, "Can Mr. Smith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner." But this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have these little words like you and me and who, which we use in place of nouns. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the Latin also. In the Latin the word pro means in place of. So the word pronoun means literally in place of a noun.

43. A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.

These pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following:

The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the workers learn solidarity.

And yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea if we did not have pronouns. Instead we say:

The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn solidarity.

44. We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most common pronouns are:

I

you

he

she

it

we

they

me

him

her

us

them

my

your

his

her

its

our

their

that

which

who

whose

whom

what

Exercise 3

Underscore the pronouns in the following story:

A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty and rough.

"Make me beautiful," said the stone.

"I shall have to hurt you," said the man.

"Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it," said the stone.

So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And he ground it till the dust fell all about it.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And he polished it very hard.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day she wore her crown, and the stone—it was a diamond—sparkled in long rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised the beautiful stone.

The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious.

PREPOSITIONS

45. Notice the following sentences:

I want the book on the box.

I want the book under the box.

I want the book in the box.

I want the book beside the box.

I want the book behind the box.

I want the book beyond the box.

Do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any of the classes of words which we have studied? I is a pronoun, want is a verb, the is an adjective, book is a noun, the is an adjective, box is a noun; but the words, on, under, in, beside, behind and beyond are not nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or pronouns.

Yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences without these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between the book and the box. And you will notice too that each word expresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say on the box and another thing to say in the box, and so through the list.

46. The words which are used to show this relation are called prepositions. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like on the box and in the box, and so on, are called prepositional phrases. The noun which follows a preposition as box follows the prepositions in, on, beside, beyond, etc., is called the object of the preposition.

Preposition is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It is formed from the Latin pre, which means before, and the Latin verb which means to place, so preposition means literally to place before. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or pronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition is as follows:

47. A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.

48. Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition. Notice the following sentences:

Bring the book to me.

Lay the book on the table.

He will speak to you.

I will speak to the man.

In these sentences the noun table is the object of the preposition on; the pronoun me is the object of the preposition to; and in the last two sentences the pronoun you and the noun man are the objects of the preposition to.

49. There are not many prepositions in the language and they are easily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most common and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence.

at

across

around

about

among

above

against

along

behind

beside

between

below

beyond

by

before

beneath

down

for

from

in

into

off

on

over

to

toward

under

up

upon

with

within

without

Exercise 4

Underscore the prepositions in the following sentences:

He went to the door and looked out upon the field.

Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go.

He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him.

They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees at the foot of the hill.

They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat.

The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation.

The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn.

His claim was within the law but without justice.

CONJUNCTIONS

50. We have found that the preposition is a very important connective word. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we use in English. We have another part of speech which performs an important function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence:

Men and women struggle for their rights.

Can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides the preposition for? Did you notice that little word and? The noun men and the noun women are both subjects of the verb struggle, and they are joined by this little connective word and. If we did not have this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought, thus:

Men struggle for their rights.

Women struggle for their rights.

But with the use of this connective word and we can combine these two sentences and express it all in one sentence:

Men and women struggle for their rights.

This word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we say, Get the book on the table, the phrase on the table designates the book just as much as if we had said, Get the green book. So the use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words and to make one word describe or modify the other.

51. This little word and in the sentence, Men and women struggle for their rights, is a connective word also, but it connects two words that are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective word from the preposition. Words used in this way are called conjunctions. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin, being made up of the Latin word con, which means together, and the Latin verb juncto, which means to join. So conjunction means literally to join together.

52. A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of sentences.

Notice the following sentence:

The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the industrial field.

Here we have the conjunction and connecting the two phrases on the political field and on the industrial field. Without the use of this connective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two thoughts:

The class struggle is waged on the political field.

The class struggle is waged on the industrial field.

53. So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words.

Now notice the following sentences:

He will speak. I will listen.

He will speak, and I will listen.

He will speak, but I will listen.

He will speak, if I will listen.

He will speak, therefore I will listen.

He will speak, because I will listen.

He will speak, until I will listen.

54. These sentences are joined by different conjunctions, and the conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence.

The conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the same words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in English and they are readily recognized.

55. We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons. If you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading:

and

as

as if

after

although

as soon as

because

besides

before

but

either

for

hence

in order that

lest

neither

nor

or

since

still

so

then

though

that

than

therefore

till

until

unless

while

whether

yet

The seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our sentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are either nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or conjunctions.

Exercise 5

Underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether they connect words or phrases or sentences.

1. We cannot win unless we are organized.

2. Books and music are true friends.

3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor just.

4. We must educate and organize.

5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united.

6. Winter has come and the birds are going South.

7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited.

8. We must learn before we can teach.

9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the facts.

10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false?

IT CAN BE DONE

Somebody said that it couldn't be done,
But he, with a chuckle, replied
That "maybe it couldn't," but he would be one
Who wouldn't say so till he tried.
So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin
On his face. If he worried he hid it.
He started to sing as he tackled the thing
That couldn't be done—and he did it.

Somebody scoffed, "Oh, you'll never do that;
At least no one ever has done it."
But he took off his coat and he took off his hat,
And the first thing we knew he'd begun it;
With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin,
Without any doubting or quiddit,
He started to sing as he tackled the thing
That couldn't be done—and he did it.

There are thousands to tell you it can not be done;
There are thousands to prophesy failure;
There are thousands to point out to you, one by one,
The dangers that wait to assail you.
But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin,
Then take off your coat and go to it;
Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing
That "can not be done,"—and you'll do it.

INTERJECTIONS

56. There is another class of words which we use with sentences, but which are really not parts of the sentences. They are emotional expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to the invented language. For example:

Oh! You hurt me!

Aha! Now I have you.

Oh, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and aha like a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the construction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without them, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies the thought. We call expressions such as these interjections. Interjection is from the Latin and means literally thrown into the midst of. It comes from the Latin word inter, which means between, and the Latin verb jecto, to throw, so it literally means to throw between.

Some of these words imitate sounds, as for example:

Bang! There goes another shot.

Ding-dong! There goes the first bell.

We do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific subjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in poetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our definition of an interjection:

57. An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.

58. Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in sentences of your own.

oh

hello

bravo

ahoy

aha

hurrah

bow wow

ssh

alas

hist

whirr

pshaw

fie

whoa

ding-dong

rub-a-dub

Exercise 6

Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which express emotion and those which imitate sound.

1. Oh! Is it possible.

2. Hurrah! We have good news at last.

3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine.

4. Come! Keep up your courage.

5. What! I cannot believe it.

6. Courage! We shall yet win.

7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries.

8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour!

SPELLING
LESSON 3

Since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound.

Of the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each vowel has several different sounds.

Therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words. When you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are called diacritical marks.

The following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have determined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to the correct pronunciation.

Different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this course—Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary.

Key to Pronunciation

ā as in late, fade.

ä as in mar, father.

ȧ as in mask, dance.

a as in cat, had.

aw as in awl, fall.

ē as in he, feet.

ẽ as in her, verge.

e as in let, men.

ī as in line, time.

i as in tin, little.

ō as in vote, home.

ô as in orb, form.

o as in lot, odd.

oi as in oil, join.

o̅o̅ as in moon, school.

oo as in cook, foot.

ou as in out, house.

ū as in mute, unit.

u as in nut, drum.

The spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the different vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the a's in Monday's lesson, all the e's in Tuesday's lesson, all the i's in Wednesday's lesson, all the o's in Thursday's lesson, and all the u's in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of w and y as vowels.

Monday

Pause

Adjective

Lazy

Quality

Advance

Tuesday

Resemble

Descend

Adverb

Interjection

Complete

Wednesday

Limit

Define

Distinct

Imprison

Civilize

Thursday

Form

Footsteps

Proof

Report

Common

Friday

Union

Under

Unusual

Summer

Commune

Saturday

Comply

Employ

Vowel

News

Lawful

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 4

Dear Comrade:

We are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language, the words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men we would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the dim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required cooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This stage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention of the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery.

There are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic alphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use of writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken and written language and it has been well said that all that separates us from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom of the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless.

So these various names of things have come to us with developing evolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of fire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to heat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her phases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more adequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty.

The study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master the few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a vocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the marvels that are commonplace to us.

As you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and choose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good English spoken as often as you can. Read good English. Mark the difference between good and bad English and gradually you will find yourself using good English naturally and continually.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE

CLASSES OF NOUNS

59. We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified according to the work which each word does. The words which assert are called verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns. But now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes according to the special work which they perform. Just as we may gather the people of the world into one great class, the working class, then classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus some are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as truck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc.

So we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their meaning in the sentence.

In the sentence, Lincoln was a man of the people, we have two nouns referring to the same person, Lincoln and man, but they are different kinds of names. The word man is a name that may apply to any one of a million persons but the name Lincoln applies to one person only. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or class, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are names given to designate a particular individual. These are called common and proper nouns.

60. A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place or thing.

All other nouns are common nouns.

A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class of objects.

Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.

Indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under the letters that ought to be capitals:

king

month

city

france

dog

virginia

war

wilson

november

doctor

colonel

napoleon

chicago

governor

independence day

freedom

ocean

atlantic ocean

thanksgiving

thanksgiving day

uncle william

thursday

week

general sherman

karl marx

union

labor

united mine workers

newspaper

the daily call

Write the special or proper names of several individuals in each of the following classes:—as city,—Chicago, New York, etc.

River, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book, college.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

61. Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and are called collective nouns.

Many soldiers taken together form collectively an army—a number of sheep form a drove. Many of these group or collective nouns will readily occur to your mind.

A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of separate persons or things.

Exercise 1

Opposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the individuals represented by the collection; as an army of soldiers; a swarm of bees; a flock of birds.

A gang of.......

A committee of.......

A herd of.......

A drove of.......

A hive of.......

A corps of.......

A suite of.......

A group of.......

A class of.......

A multitude of.......

Fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns.

A......of horses.

A......of sailors.

A......of wolves.

A......of savages.

A......of singers.

A......of girls.

A......of ships.

A......of quail.

A......of birds.

A......of workers.

ABSTRACT NOUNS

62. When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless he first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and touch,—the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities which he could consider apart from the object itself.

He hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making his arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he could find, so hardness became something which he could think of as something apart from the object itself.

He saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that some men were stronger than others, so strength was a quality which he could consider apart from the man himself.

These men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,—so running and climbing became actions which he could think of as something apart from any individual.

He noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men were free, some were slaves, so he came to think of slavery and freedom as conditions which could be thought of as something apart from the individual.

So we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the quality from the thing which has it and the action from the thing which does it and the condition from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to describe these qualities, actions or conditions are called abstract nouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin abs, away from, and tractus, drawn, so it literally means drawn away from.

The nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called concrete nouns.

63. A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived by one or more of the five senses.

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.

64. You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects, as for example—good, noble, honest, true, wise, etc. Since abstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns are formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of adjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an adjective when it is used with a noun to describe certain qualities. It is a noun when it is used by itself to name that quality.

65. You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name actions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action, therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the following list:

66. An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing which is in the condition.

Exercise 2

Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns.

long

simple

rapid

lovely

loyal

fresh

prove

sing

run

behave

believe

reflect

write

child

agent

infant

rascal

clerk

president

coward

NUMBER FORM

67. So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, book, man, boy, knife, when we wish to express the idea of only one of each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than one of them, we say, books, men, boys, knives.

We say, The boy calls; the boys call. The form of the noun boy is changed by adding an s to it. The meaning has also changed. Boy denotes one lad; boys denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and meaning of words is called inflection. The change to denote more than one object is called number. The word boy, denoting one is in the singular number; the word boys, denoting more than one is in the plural number.

68. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a different application or use.

Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more than one.

The singular number denotes one thing.

The plural number denotes more than one thing.

There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must know, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling.

69. Most nouns form their plural by adding s—thus:

Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding es, and you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such words as bird-es, cloud-es. Later the e was dropped and s added to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular ends in an s sound, the original syllable es is retained, for two hissing sounds will not unite.

70. So nouns ending in s, x, z, sh or soft ch, form the plural by adding es to the singular. These words end with a sound so much like that of s that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without making another syllable. Thus:

71. In words ending with the s sound but with a final e, only s is added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have two syllables, thus:

72. Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an apostrophe and the letter s ('s), thus:

Cross your t's and dot your i's.

Do you know the table of 4's?

While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding s or es, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other change in the form of the word.

73. Notice the following list of words and their plurals:

fly

flies

city

cities

key

keys

day

days

story

stories

enemy

enemies

tray

trays

boy

boys

These nouns all end in y, yet they form the plural differently. Some simply add s and the rest change the y to i and add es. Can you discover the reason?

Wherever the y is preceded by a vowel, as e in key, a in tray, o in boy, the plural is formed by adding s. But when the y is preceded by a consonant, as l in fly, r in story, t in city, and m in enemy, the y is changed to i and es added in forming the plural.

If the singular ends in y after a consonant, change y to i and add es in the plural.

74. There are thirteen nouns ending in f and three in fe which form the plural in ves. They are:

All other nouns in f or fe are regular; adding only s, to form the plural.

75. About forty nouns ending in o after a consonant form the plural in es. The most common ones are:

buffalo

cargo

potato

tomato

negro

veto

cargo

echo

calico

embargo

hero

mulatto

mosquito

motto

tornado

volcano

torpedo

flamingo

Most nouns ending in o form the plural regularly, adding only s, as pianos, banjos, cameos, etc.

76. A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without adding s or es.

The most common of these words are:

77. Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as common nouns. Thus we write:

All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr. Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present.

But to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in changing the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing the plurals; for example:

There were eight Henrys, kings of England.

The two Marys reigned in the kingdom.

It would be confusing to say eight Henries, the two Maries.

The title is made plural when several are referred to, thus:

78. The title is made plural when used with several names, thus:

Messrs. Brown and White.

Generals Lee and Grant.

Drs. Long and Larson.

79. In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought of separately the s is added to the whole compound word, as four-in-hands; forget-me-nots; court-yards; spoonfuls; green-houses; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than the others, the s is added to the more important part, thus:

mothers-in-law

commanders-in-chief

hangers-on

men-of-war

by-standers

attorneys-at-law

passers-by

step-sons

80. We have many words in our language taken from other languages. They do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of these words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used of these nouns are the following:

81. The following nouns are treated as singular: news, pains (meaning care), acoustics, mathematics, economics, ethics, molasses, physics, politics, and other nouns ending in ics except athletics. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For example:

The news is distorted. Not, The news are distorted.

Economics is an important study. Not, Economics are, etc.

82. The following nouns are always plural:

alms

annals

amends

antipodes

bellows

billiards

clothes

dregs

eaves

fireworks

hysterics

measles

mumps

matins

nippers

nuptials

oats

premises

proceeds

pincers

riches

rickets

suds

scissors

thanks

tidings

tongs

trousers

vitals

victuals

vespers

With all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with the plural subject. Thus:

Alms are given.

Riches are easily lost.

83. The following nouns have the same form for both plural and singular, corps, cannon, deer, grouse, heathen, hose, means, odds, series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, wages. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the meaning of the sentence. For example:

The cannon is loaded. Here we are speaking of one cannon.

The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size. Here we know are meant all the big guns used in the war.

When you say, The sheep is lost, we know you mean one sheep, but when you say, The sheep are in the pasture, we know you mean the entire drove.

84. When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form for both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed by the adding of s; brace, couple, dozen, hundred, pair, score, thousand, yoke. For example:

Thousands enlisted.

Three thousand enlisted.

Dozens came at my call.

Two dozen came when I called.

GENDER

85. All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the purpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living beings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the feminine. This is called gender.

Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.

The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.

The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.

86. The feminine form is generally made by the addition of ess to the masculine form. Thus:

87. Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and are called neuter nouns. Neuter means literally neither. Such nouns as mountain, iron, river, chair, are neuter.

Sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine. Thus:

88. Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and female, and are said to be of common gender. As woman enters more and more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man, the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus:

Poet, waiter, doctor, editor—these nouns are used for both men and women.

POSSESSIVE FORM

89. There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we write:

John's book.

The boy's hat.

And since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the possessive form. Some grammarians call this the possessive case.

The possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and s, ('s); thus, day's, lady's, girl's, clerk's.

To plural nouns ending in s add only an apostrophe; thus, days', ladies', girls', clerks'.

When plural nouns do not end in s, their possessive forms are made by adding the apostrophe and s, the same as singular nouns, thus:

They make men's and women's shoes.

90. In words which end with a sound that resembles that of s, the apostrophe with s forms an additional syllable. Thus:

James's (pronounced James-ez.)

Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.)

The only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another s would make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone. Thus:

For goodness' sake.

In Jesus' name.

91. In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign is always placed at the end, thus:

My son-in-law's sister.

The man-of-war's cannon.

92. When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons who are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word only, thus:

Carson, Price and Scott's store.

Mason and Hamlin's pianos.

If it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the possessive sign after each name, thus:

Bring me John's and Mary's books.

Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle.

Remember that the noun has just three changes in form, one for the plural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form. Watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if these changes are correctly made.

Exercise 3

Write the plural form of each of the following:

ax

beef

chief

hero

knife

T

hoof

man-of-war

axis

basis

cherry

leaf

son-in-law

Mr. Smith

thief

Doctor Wood

alley

buffalo

chimney

staff

Frenchman

Miss Brown

ox

spoonful

alto

calf

cargo

two

3

tooth

foot

turkey

Exercise 4

Underscore the nouns in the following:

How many abstract nouns?

How many concrete?

How many singular?

How many plural?

FIVE AND FIFTY

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

If fifty men did all the work
And gave the price to five;
And let those five make all the rules—
You'd say the fifty men were fools,
Unfit to be alive.

And if you heard complaining cries
From fifty brawny men,
Blaming the five for graft and greed,
Injustice, cruelty indeed—
What would you call them then?

Not by their own superior force
Do five on fifty live,
But by election and assent—
And privilege of government—
Powers that the fifty give.

If fifty men are really fools—
And five have all the brains—
The five must rule as now we find;
But if the fifty have the mind—
Why don't they take the reins?

Exercise 5

Select all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and possessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common or proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter.

Brother!

Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you.

I extend to you my right hand.

I make you a pledge.

Here is my pledge to you:—

I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds of any flag.

Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working class?—Kirkpatrick.

SPELLING
LESSON 4

Some of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph, as gh, in cough, ch in church. A digraph may either be a combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a consonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more than one sound:

c—k as in cat

c—s as in vice

g—j as in ginger

g—hard as in go

s—sh as in sure

s—zh as in usual

s—soft as in also

s—z as in does

x—soft as in extra

x—gz as in exist

The following table gives the digraphs most commonly used:

ng—as in ring, tongue

ch—as in church and much

ch—k as in chasm

ch—sh as in chagrin

th—as in then, those

th—as in thin and worth

ce—sh as in ocean

ci—sh as in special

dg—j as in edge

gh—f as in rough

ph—f as in sylph

qu—kw as in quart

qu—k as in conquer

sh—as in shall

si—sh as in tension

si—zh as in vision

ti—sh as in motion

The use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and digraphs.

Monday

Commence

Certain

General

Gradual

Sugar

Tuesday

Soldier

Season

Pleasure

Exact

Exercise

Wednesday

Singular

Chemistry

Chapter

Machine

Changing

Thursday

Theory

Thither

Ocean

Racial

Budget

Friday

Philosophy

Enough

Quorum

Bouquet

Phonetic

Saturday

Permission

Asia

Attention

Marshall

Martial

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 5

Dear Comrade:

We want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not intended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in individuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of liberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we necessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by concentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the accomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of action and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up his liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make glorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of real freedom.

So use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find expression for your real individuality in full freedom.

This is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not understand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points. Keep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your spelling and pronunciation.

Some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In a student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he spelled College, Colledge.

Do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is worthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little verse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman:

"O, the joy of a manly self-hood;
To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or unknown,
To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic,
To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye,
To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest,
To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the earth."

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE WORD THAT ASSERTS

93. You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a sentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or command. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the verb, verbum, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided into classes.

94. In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a complete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be followed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

The boy ran.

The boy found the ball.

The earth revolves.

The earth is round.

Do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences? Notice that the verbs ran and revolves make the complete assertion about their subjects. Notice the verbs found and is. These are not complete without the addition of the words ball and round. If we say The boy found, The earth is, you at once ask, The boy found WHAT? The earth is WHAT? The sense is incomplete without the addition of these words ball and round. A part of the thought is unexpressed; but when we say The boy found the ball, The earth is round, the sense is complete.

So we have two classes of verbs, COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS.

95. An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or more words to complete its meaning.

The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning are called the complement.

A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its meaning.

96. You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is incomplete by asking the question What? If you put the question what after the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is incomplete. For example:

Farmers raise—what?

The employer discharged—what?

We were—what?

The earth is—what?

If the question what? does not make sense after the verb, then the verb is complete. For example:

The sun shines.

Water flows.

Men work.

The question what after these verbs would not make sense, as:

The sun shines—what?

Men work—what?

Water flows—what?

So these verbs are complete verbs.

97. The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used. For example:

The corn grows.

The farmer grows corn.

In the sentence, Corn grows, grows is a complete verb. You could not say The corn grows—what? for it does not grow anything. It merely grows, and the verb grows in this sense is a complete verb. But in the sentence, The farmer grows corn, you are using the verb grows in a slightly different sense. It is an incomplete verb, for you do not mean, The farmer grows, but you mean that the farmer grows CORN.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line, the incomplete with two lines. Ask the question what? after each verb to determine whether it is complete or incomplete.

He returned today.

He returned the book.

The rose smells sweet.

He smelled the rose.

The trees shake in the wind.

The wind shakes the trees.

The ship plows through the waves.

The farmer plows the field.

The birds sing sweetly.

They sang the Marseillaise.

He worries over the matter.

The matters worry him.

The table feels rough.

He feels the rough surface.

It tastes bitter.

He tasted the bitter dregs.

Exercise 2

Use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete verbs, as for example, The snow melts. The sun melts the snow.

melts

write

stopped

answer

rings

fall

see

strike

INCOMPLETE VERBS

98. Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following sentences:

The boy found the ball.

The earth is round.

In the sentence, The boy found the ball, the word ball tells what the boy found. The verb found expresses action; it tells what the boy does. Boy is the subject of the action—the one who performs the action. The word ball is the object of the action. It shows the receiver of the action. In the sentence, The earth is round, is does not express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply is. The verb is expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other word or words which describe the state or condition.

Notice the following sentences:

The earth is round.

The earth is our home.

The earth is a sphere.

The earth is large.

The words round, sphere, home and large, describe the earth which is the subject of the verb is.

99. So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express action and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which express action are called transitive verbs. Transitive is a word derived from the Latin, and means literally passing over.

100. So a transitive verb describes an action which passes over from the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, The player struck the ball, struck is a transitive verb—a verb of action—describing the action of the subject, player, which passes over to the object, ball. Therefore we have our definition of a transitive verb:

A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what receives the action expressed by the verb.

The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed by a transitive verb is called the object.

When you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find some verbs marked v.i., and some verbs marked v.t. V.t. is the abbreviation for verb transitive. Whenever you find a verb marked v.t., you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one which requires an object to complete its meaning. V.i. is the abbreviation for verb intransitive. Some grammarians use the term intransitive to include both complete and copulative verbs. We have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but you will remember that when you find verbs marked v.i. in the dictionary that these include complete and copulative verbs.

101. Now notice these sentences:

The earth is round.

The earth is a sphere.

In these sentences the verb is does not express action, but connects or couples the complements round and sphere with the subject earth. Verbs used in this way are called copulative verbs, from the word copula, which means to complete or to connect. The words round and sphere are not the objects of the verb, for they do not describe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe the state or condition expressed in the verb is, and are called the attribute complement of the verb.

You note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In the sentence, The earth is round, the adjective, round, is used as the complement; in the sentence, The earth is a sphere, the noun, sphere, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of copulative verbs.

102. Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.

The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb expressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute complement.

There are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb, be; like am, is, are, was and were, and the verb phrases like must be, can be, will be, shall be, have been, had been, etc.; and the verbs seem, appear, become, look, feel, taste, sound and smell, are the principal copulative verbs.

Exercise 3

Study carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each adjective used as a complement and two lines under each noun used as a complement.

The day is beautiful.

I am weary and tired.

The men were soldiers.

The tasks seem endless.

All men must be free.

The workers have been slaves.

The burden becomes heavier every day.

The children feel happy and care-free.

Evolution is the development of life.

Grammar is the study of words and their use.

Knowledge is freedom.

The music sounds sweet on the midnight air.

He looks well today.

The dregs taste bitter.

The incense smells sweet.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement.

1. Perseverance in your study will bring.......

2. The great need of the working class is.......

3. We shall never acknowledge.......

4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat.......

5. The Revolutionary fathers founded.......

6. The workers demand.......

7. Labor's only road to freedom is.......

8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are.......

9. If you struggle, you will gain.......

10. An incomplete verb requires.......

11. The complement of a transitive verb is called.......

12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or.......

103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.

A complete verb is one that requires no complement.

An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its meaning.

Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2. Those that express state or condition.

Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.

Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.

The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed in a transitive verb is called the object.

The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are called the complement, or attribute complement.

The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs and a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line through the object or the complement.

1. Some plants are poisonous.

2. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

3. Perseverance brings success.

4. Delays are dangerous.

5. A man's actions show his character.

6. He looks well and feels stronger.

7. The snows come and the flowers fade.

8. Labor creates all wealth.

9. Labor must be free.

10. The boy writes well.

11. The man wrote a letter.

12. The skies are clear.

13. The hail destroyed the wheat.

14. No man is ever too old to learn.

15. Competition makes enemies.

16. Co-operation makes friends.

17. Competition breeds hatred.

18. Co-operation breeds good will.

19. Competition ensures war.

20. Co-operation ensures peace.

Exercise 6

In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in italics. Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: must be, in the sentence, Labor must be free.

The history of man is simply the history of slavery. Slavery includes all other crimes. It degrades labor and corrupts leisure. With the idea that labor is the basis of progress goes the truth that labor must be free. The laborer must be a free man.

There is something wrong in a government where honesty wears a rag and rascality dons a robe; where the loving eat a crust while the infamous sit at banquets.

Talk about equal opportunity! Capitalism ties a balloon to the shoulders of the rich child; it ties a ball and chain to the feet of the poor child; and tells them that they have an equal opportunity!

Once the master hunted for the slaves, now the slave hunts for a master.

Exercise 7

Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for example in the fourth line of this poem which are, is omitted before the word bought. In prose this would read, The pews which are bought by the profits, etc. So the word bought is a part of the verb phrase, are bought. In the last line of the third stanza there is another omission before the word planning. The meaning is, while they are planning slaughter. Planning is a part of the verb phrase are planning. And in the last line is is omitted before the word beloved. Is beloved is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs.

WHO IS A CHRISTIAN?

Ella Wheeler Wilcox

"Who is a Christian in this Christian land
Of many churches and of lofty spires?
Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews
Bought by the profits of unholy greed,
And looks devotion while he thinks of gain.

Not he who sends petitions from the lips
That lie to-morrow in the street and mart.
Not he who fattens on another's toil,
And flings his unearned riches to the poor
Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage,
And builds cathedrals with an increased rent.

Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love,
How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans,
Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood
While planning slaughter of their fellow men.

Who is a Christian? It is one whose life
Is built on love, on kindness and on faith;
Who holds his brother as his other self;
Who toils for justice, equity and peace,
And hides no aim or purpose in his heart
That will not chord with universal good.
Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew
That man is Christian and beloved of Christ."

SPELLING
LESSON 5

We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as ou in round, oi in oil, etc.

A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single sound different from that of either alone.

Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as ai in rain, oa in soap, etc.

The most common diphthongs are:

ou as in sound.

ow as in owl.

oi as in oil.

oy as in boy.

In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter.

Monday

Straight

Aisle

Search

Breadth

Defeat

Tuesday

Exploit

Ceiling

Height

People

Feudal

Wednesday

Brought

Shoulder

Group

Compound

Trouble

Thursday

Royal

Coarse

Course

Broad

Flower

Friday

Laughter

Haunted

Plaid

Invoice

Chair

Saturday

Guide

Build

Grieve

Sieve

Renown

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 6

Dear Comrade:

We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer and you will master this important word.

The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, more than one, the verb wears a different dress.

So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! So watch your verb and see that it agrees.

Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms.

Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the time of the action—action in the present, in the past, in the future—action completed before the present time—before some time past—or before some future time—and action progressing and not yet completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative commonwealth of words?

And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to the monster threshing machine of modern times.

There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise you.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INFLECTION—CHANGES IN FORM

104. You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences:

I think.

I thought.

I work.

I worked.

What is the difference in the meaning of I think and I thought? of I work and I worked? When we say, I think, or I work, we mean that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, I thought, or I worked, we mean that now is not the time of the action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we have a change in the verb form to denote time. The simple form of the verb, like think or work, is used to denote present time. When we wish to express past time we do it by changing the form of the verb. Now note the following:

Now let us write this in another way.

105. You notice in this table we use the expressions first person, second person, and third person. I and we indicate the person or persons speaking and are called the first person. You indicates the person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. He, she, it, they, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are called the third person.

We use the word you when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said thou, and in speaking to two or more they said you. But we today have dropped the old form thou, and use you for both singular and plural.

106. Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change in the verb, and this is in the third person singular. We say I call, You call, We call, They, or The men call, but we say He, or the man calls, in speaking of one person or thing. So we change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third person and the singular number. This form is made by adding s to the simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the s-form because it always ends in s.

Remember that this s-form is used to express present time with a third person, singular subject. BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY PLURAL SUBJECT. There is no other change in the verb form in expressing the present time in any verb, except in the verb be.

107. This little verb be is one of the most troublesome verbs in our language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the first person singular, as well as for the third person singular. All other verbs have just the one change, the s-form for the third person singular. The verb be has a form also to use with the first person singular, the pronoun I.

108. The present time form is the form which expresses present time. It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, which is expressed by the s-form.

PAST TIME

109. To express past time we change the form of the verb. Notice the following:

Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all form their past time form in different ways. For example, call adds ed; send changes the final letter from d to t; fall changes the vowel in the middle of the word from a to e; bring changes both the vowel and the final letter from bring to brought; hide drops the final letter e.

110. Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding d or ed to the simple form are called regular verbs.

Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding d or ed are called irregular verbs.

111. There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form their past time in the following ways:

1. By change in the vowel letter, as fall, fell; write, wrote; see, saw; sing, sang; come, came.

2. By dropping the final vowel; as hide, hid; slide, slid; bite, bit.

3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as bleed, bled; feed, fed; lead, led.

4. By changing the final letter or letters; as send, sent; lose, lost; spend, spent.

5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as bring, brought; seek, sought; catch, caught.

6. By changing the vowel sound and adding t or d; as sleep, slept; feel, felt; flee, fled.

There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson.

Exercise 1

Write the present and past time forms of the following verbs as the verb think is written in the table given below.

think

ride

have

give

write

ask

make

try

speak

run

see

do

112. Be very careful not to use the s-form except for the third person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of the verb be. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others offend the ear like a false note in music.

Exercise 2

Cross out the wrong form in the following:

They was—were not here.

The clouds has—have gathered.

People is—are indifferent.

The train was—were on time.

The men was—were armed.

Our school building is—are inadequate.

The workers earn—earns their wages.

The voters elect—elects the President.

They do—does as they please.

We was—were there on time.

DOING DOUBLE WORK

113. We have found now three forms of the verb, the simple form, the s-form, and the past time form, and, in addition, the I-form, or the first person form of the verb be. There are no other real verb forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech.

Notice in the following sentences:

Making shoes is his work.

He enjoys making shoes.

In each of these sentences the word making, from the verb make, is used as a noun. In the first, Making shoes is his work, making is used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, He enjoys making shoes, making is used as the object of the verb enjoys. But making is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object making—what?—making shoes. Shoes is the object of the action expressed in making. A noun never takes an object; so while the word making is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time.

Hence these forms of the verb are called participles. Participle means partaker.

The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following:

The crying child came toward us.

The rescuing party arrived.

In these sentences crying and rescuing are formed from the verbs cry and rescue, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun child and the noun party. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and always has a subject. The participle never has a subject; it may have an object, but not a subject.

114. There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the present form as it is sometimes called, ends in ing, as, waiting, walking, saying. It expresses action, existence, or possession as going on at the time mentioned in the sentence.

115. The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past form of the participle. This ends in ed in the regular verbs, and has various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by adding d or ed to the simple form, hence has the same form as the past time form, as for example, present time form, call—past time form, called—past participle, called. You will find the past participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given in this lesson, as for example—present time form, go—past time form, went—past participle, gone.

116. You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example:

He is coming.

They are trying.

He has gone.

A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.

LET US SUM UP

117. Verbs have five form changes.

Exercise 3

Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs:

do

try

give

hope

live

rob

have

think

sing

get

wave

lose

come

make

Exercise 4

Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of the form changes of the verb—the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle. In the verb phrases had been filled, has survived, has gone, has proved and be dismayed, you will find the past participle used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in later lessons.

In the verb phrases, was stumbling, was groping, is conquering, are carrying, the present participle is used in forming the verb phrases. Could reconcile is also a verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases also in later lessons.

The present participles, struggling, persevering and regaining are used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they describe. The present participles imagining, learning and suffering are used as nouns. Note their use.

The past participles rebuffed, self-reproached, discouraged and promised are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. There are several present time forms, several past time forms, and several s-forms. Find them and study carefully their usage.

OUT OF THE DARK

By Helen Keller

America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most people with normal eyes

Step by step my investigation of blindness led me into the industrial world. And what a world it is. I faced unflinchingly a world of facts—a world of misery and degradation, of blindness, crookedness, and sin, a world struggling against the elements, against the unknown, against itself. How could I reconcile this world of fact with the bright world of my imagining? My darkness had been filled with the light of intelligence, and, behold, the outer day-lit world was stumbling, was groping in social blindness. At first, I was most unhappy, but deeper study restored my confidence. By learning the suffering and burdens of men, I became aware as never before of the life-power which has survived the forces of darkness—the power which, though never completely victorious, is continuously conquering. The very fact that we are still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation proves that on the whole the battle has gone for humanity. The world's great heart has proved equal to the prodigious undertaking which God set it. Rebuffed, but always persevering; self-reproached, but ever regaining faith; undaunted, tenacious, the heart of man labors towards immeasurably distant goals. Discouraged not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages within, the heart listens to a secret voice that whispers: "Be not dismayed; in the future lies the Promised Land."

List of Irregular Verbs

Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs—the present and past time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a verb.

(Those marked with an r have also the regular form.)

SPELLING
LESSON 6

Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound indicates a syllable (excepting final e in such words as fate, late, rode, etc.) Take the word combination, for example. In this word we have four syllables, thus: Com-bi-na-tion.

A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a single effort of the voice. Remember that each syllable must contain a vowel or a vowel combination like oi or ou, which is pronounced as one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in a-lone, e-qual, etc. The final e in words like late, and fate is not sounded. It is silent, we say.

All words ending in silent e have the long vowel sound, with a very few exceptions. Words without the final e have the short vowel sound as for example: fate, fat; mate, mat; hide, hid; rode, rod.

In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the e is long therefore f, the consonant following, is written with the next syllable, fine. In def-i-ni-tion the e has the short sound, therefore the f is written with the e in the syllable, def.

When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the consonants, as for example, in-ven-tion, foun-da-tion, etc. Never divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as one sound, as for example, moth-er, catch-er, te-leg-ra-pher, etc.

In writing words containing double consonants like dd, ll, ss, divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for example, per-mit-ted, ad-mis-sion, sad-dest, etc.

Monday

Important

Accommodate

Person

Correspond

Action

Tuesday

Difference

Notice

Indicate

Remember

Irregular

Wednesday

Mistake

Conversation

Correctly

President

Ordinary

Thursday

Participle

Passive

Various

Phrase

Quotation

Friday

Imagine

Confidence

Humanity

Faith

Future

Saturday

Whisper

Thought

Ability

Knowledge

Genius

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 7

Dear Comrade:

I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew.

We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing.

There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words have come into our language and also the difference in speech which marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that which belongs to them—the best—the best in language as in everything else.

"'… I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and comfort.'

"'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to read riddles.'

"'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four legs?' demanded Wamba.

"'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.'

"'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels like a traitor?'

"'Pork,' answered the swineherd.

"'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth, ha?' … "

So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who produce and those who possess.

But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the battle for industrial freedom. It is your struggle. Study—prepare yourself to do battle for your rights.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

FUTURE TIME

118. We have learned how to express present time and past time, by changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus we may say:

We shall enjoy our rights some day.

He will join us in the struggle.

We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, or that we did in the past, but that we shall enjoy our rights some time in the future. In the second sentence, will join expresses the same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a change in the verb form, but we use shall and will with the simple form of the verb.

119. We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing shall or will before the simple form of the verb.

120. The rule of some grammarians is to use shall always in the first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and will with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses will in the first person to express future time, as well as shall.

This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The idea of the grammarians is that when we use will with the first person and shall with the second or third person, we express a promise or determination. Thus if I say, I shall go, I simply mean that my going will be in the future. But if I say, I will go, I either mean that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to go. So also if we use shall in the second and third persons. If we say, You will go or He will go, we are simply stating that the going will be in the future, but if we say, You shall go, or He shall go, we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go.

To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. Shall in the first person, and will in the second and third express simple futurity. Will in the first person and shall in the second and third express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow this rule.

Exercise 1

Mark the future time forms in the following sentences:

1. I shall speak of liberty.

2. I will never give up.

3. I shall write to him.

4. He shall not starve.

5. We shall expect you.

6. They shall suffer for this.

7. I shall go to New York.

8. He will call for me.

9. The hungry shall be fed.

10. You will soon see the reason.

11. You shall never want for a friend.

12. They shall some day see the truth.

13. We will not fight against our class.

14. We will stand together.

PERFECT TIME

121. Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that there are other verb phrases of which we have need.

When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do not say:

I study my lessons every day, but, I have studied my lessons every day.

Not, You work for him every day, but, You have worked for him every day.

Not, He sees her frequently, but, He has seen her frequently.

Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in I work every day, and I have worked every day? In the first sentence you express a general truth, I work every day, a truth which has been true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, I have worked every day, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is called the present complete or present perfect time.

122. Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form.

123. The present perfect time form describes an action completed at the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of have and the past participle of the verb.

124. Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the past time form, as for example: go, went, gone; do, did, done, etc.

Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past participle with have or had; never use the past time form with have or had.

PAST PERFECT

125. When you desire to express an action complete at some definite past time, you do not say:

We finished when they came, but, We had finished when they came.

Not, They went when we arrived, but, They had gone when we arrived.

Not, I worked six months when he began, but, I had worked six months when he began.

Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: I worked six months when he began; and I had worked six months when he began? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected before some definite past time.

126. Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at some definite past time. It is formed by using had and the past participle of the verb.

Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with had.

Exercise 2

Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time form.

1. I have saw it often.

2. He had shook his fist.

3. She has sang for us.

4. The boat has sank here.

5. He has spoke the truth.

6. They had stole the books.

7. He has swore to the truth.

8. He had took the wrong road.

9. She has tore her dress.

10. He had threw the ball away.

11. The girl had wore the dress.

12. He had wrote the letters.

13. He had drank too much.

14. He had rode the horse.

15. The sun has rose.

16. He has bore his part.

17. They have began already.

18. The wind has blew all night.

19. It had broke when it fell.

20. He has chose the right.

21. You have did your duty.

22. He has ate his breakfast.

23. A heavy rain has fell.

24. They had gave it to me.

25. He has became rich.

26. It has grew rapidly.

27. He has knew it always.

28. He has mistook her for another.

FUTURE PERFECT TIME

127. We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time before some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus,

I shall have gone before you arrive.

You will have earned your money before you get it.

I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes.

Can you not see a difference in saying, I shall work thirty days when pay-day comes, and I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be completed or perfected before pay-day comes. So there is quite a difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time.

128. The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is formed by using shall have or will have with the past participle.

Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with shall have or will have.

LET US SUM UP

129. We have three time forms, present, past, future.

Each of these three time forms has a perfect form; that is, a time form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present time, or before some definite past or future time.

130. It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of color.

In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist.

Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind.

131. Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and have it clearly in mind.

VERBS—SUMMARY

Two Classes

Inflection—Changes of Form

TIME FORMS

Present

Past

Future

Present Perfect

Past Perfect

Future Perfect

Exercise 3

Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb phrases are written in italics. Study these carefully and decide whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases—is seizing, is put, is praised, is defended, can see, must have, are owned, and are conducted, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have studied. Classify them.

The Working Class Must Strike the Blow

You remember Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster put forth one tentacle after another and coiled it around his victim; how the hero recalled that there was but one vulnerable spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he struck a blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep shuddered, released his grasp and fell dead.

Capitalism is a monster which is seizing the body politic. One tentacle is put forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the working class; another has seized the working-woman; another reaches forth to the child; another has fastened upon government and has made that the instrument of the powerful classes; still another has turned the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which the injustice of Capitalism is praised and is defended; and still another has seized the pulpit, has silenced those who profess to speak for God and man, or has turned their phrases into open apology and defense for the crimes of Capitalism!

But there is one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class of the world can see that spot and will strike, they shall be free.

The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System, is that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people must have access, in order to live and labor, are owned by the few and are conducted by the few for their private profit.

This is the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.—J. Stitt Wilson.

Exercise 4

Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb see are given in section 131.

A MAGIC WORD

There's a little word below, with letters three,
Which, if you only grasp its potency,
Will send you higher
Toward the goal where you aspire,
Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see—
NOW!

Success attends the man who views it right.
Its back and forward meanings differ quite;
For this is how it reads
To the man of ready deeds,
Who spells it backwards from achievement's height—
WON!

TENSE

The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is TENSE, which is derived from a Latin word meaning time. The present time-form of the verb is called the present tense; the past time-form, the past tense; the future time-form, the future tense; the present perfect time-form, the present perfect tense, etc.

Exercise 5

Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or tenses,—present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect, as follows:

Present—Labor creates all wealth.

Past—Labor created all wealth.

Future—Labor will create all wealth.

Present Perfect—Labor has created all wealth.

Past Perfect—Labor had created all wealth.

Future Perfect—Labor will have created all wealth.

1. Hope stirs us to action.

2. Human progress is our business.

3. The majority demand justice.

4. The workers fight all the battles.

SPELLING
LESSON 7

The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into syllables when carrying a portion to the next line.

When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for example: luck-y, a-loud, etc.

When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish.

When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound then these vowels may be divided, as for example, tri-al, co-or-di-nate, he-ro-ic.

Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable.

Monday

Museum

Creatures

Peaceable

Accruing

Already

Tuesday

Persuade

Trivial

Plague

Alert

Inquiry

Wednesday

Piteous

Patriot

Poetry

Evil

Business

Thursday

Obey

Breathe

Society

Ether

Sociable

Friday

Idealism

Pledge

Ache

Acre

Pronunciation

Saturday

Idle

Idol

Mutual

Wealthy

Neighbors

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 8

Dear Comrade:

You have often read the words organic and inorganic but did you ever stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic—a rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things—those which grow and those which are made.

Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe its growth.

Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, its maturity, its old age, its death.

So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek—languages which are no longer living,—no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have left living children, languages that have descended from them.

The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in our every day speech.

And it is interesting to note that our best poetry—that which stirs our blood and touches our hearts—is written in the strong forceful Anglo-Saxon words.

These words we are studying have been through some interesting experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and the experiences through which he has passed.

You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these lessons excerpts from the best authors.

Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. Command them.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES

132. We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, present, past and future and the perfect or completed form of each of the three, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other shades of meaning in time.

133. There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, I do it now, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, I am doing it now.

You have by the verb phrase, am doing, described a progressive action, an action going on in the present. You may also want to describe what you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or progressed in the past. You would not say, I built the house yesterday but, I was building the house yesterday. Again you may want to describe an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. You do not say, I shall build the house next week but, I shall be building the house next week.

So we have progressive verb phrases.

134. The present progressive describes an action as continuing or progressing in the present.

It is formed by using the present time form of the verb be and the present participle.

You remember that the present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb.

135. The past progressive time form describes an action which was continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past time form of the verb be and the present participle.

136. The future progressive describes an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future time form of the verb be and the present participle.

137. The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a difference of meaning in the present perfect and its progressive form. You say for instance, I have tried all my life to be free. You mean you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you have ceased to try. But, if you say, I have been trying all my life to be free, we understand that you have tried and are still trying.

138. So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb be and the present participle.

139. The past perfect progressive describes an action which was continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the past perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle.

140. The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect.

1. The old order is passing.

2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists.

3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has accumulated.

4. The workers are realizing their power.

5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived.

6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year.

7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations to come unless they repudiate.

8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty.

9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating industrial conditions.

10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the people.

11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

141. Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in these sentences which show who or what performed the action; select the subjects that show who or what receives the action. Do you notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice any difference in their form?

The engine struck the man.

The man was struck by the engine.

The system enslaves men.

Men are enslaved by the system.

Leaders often betray the people.

The people are often betrayed by leaders.

Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an object which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now you notice in this first sentence, The engine struck the man, we have the transitive verb struck. Engine is the subject of the verb and man is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by the verb struck.

Now in the sentence, The man was struck by the engine, we have the same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word man, which was the object of the verb struck in the first sentence, has now become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form from struck to was struck. In the first sentence of the subject, engine was the actor. In the second sentence, The man was struck by the engine, the subject of the sentence, man, is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb.

142. So we have thus changed the verb form from struck to was struck to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action. Struck is called the active form of the verb because the subject of the verb is the actor. Was struck is called the passive form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means receiving. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb.

143. You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the complete verb, sleep, for example. We do not sleep anything, hence sleep has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as the subject, the receiver of the action.

Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form. Remember that a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject as receiving the action.

The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example:

The book is being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the present progressive, The man is writing a book.

The book was being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the past progressive, The man was writing the book.

144. The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which sounds much better.

Exercise 2

All the verbs in the following sentences are transitive verbs in the active form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the passive form and making the object of the active verb the subject of the passive verb; as, for example, the first sentence should be rewritten as follows:

War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914.

1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914.

2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat?

3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto.

4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909.

5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day.

6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789.

7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381.

8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600.

9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871.

SUMMARY

145. Now let us take the verb see and name all the time forms which we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the help of the verbs, be, have, shall and will.

First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say:

Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the s-form for the third person singular. In the present passive the only change is the special form of the verb be for the first and third persons, singular.

When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, stated in the active and passive form, we say:

We have one other division of time which we must express—the future. Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the development of memory and the means of recording events by a written language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth.

Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at some time in the future—so we have present perfect, past perfect and future perfect.

146. But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has a progressive form.

Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only.

Exercise 3

Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as the sentence, War sweeps the earth, is written.

1. Education gives power.

2. Knowledge frees men.

3. Labor unions help the workers.

4. The people seek justice.

Exercise 4

Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, lose, as the time forms of the verb see are written in the foregoing table.

When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of solidarity—which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or else of exceptional plenty—the more the two other factors of progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no courage, no initiative, no solidarity—and no victory!—Kropotkin.

SPELLING
LESSON 8

In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable.

Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.

You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'.

Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words.

These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when accented on the second syllable, they are verbs.

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 9

Dear Comrade:

You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things do and are—namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all.

Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying English that you may be able to say and write the things you think. So first of all, think, think! That is your inalienable right! Do not accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study until you see the 'why' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought is life or a human soul is a thing."

And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. You do not need to cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought.

Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,—that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another."

Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to do—to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything before a man!

So think as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PARTICIPLES

147. We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal changes in the verb itself,—the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle.

We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs, shall, will, have and be with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate—the word or words that assert something of the subject—it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb.

148. You remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles, Making shoes is his work. Here we have the present participle making, with its object shoes, used as the subject of the verb is. Now a noun never takes an object, so making in this sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, which means partaker.

We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the past participle. The present participle always ends in ing and expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned in the sentence. For example, being, bringing, working, seeing, loving, hating, etc.

The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding d or ed to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For example, regular verbs: learned from learn, defeated from defeat, watched from watch. Irregular verbs: taught from teach, seen from see, won from win.

We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives. As for example:

The crying of the child annoyed the people.

The crying child ran to its mother.

The coming of the new day will bring peace.

We await the coming day of peace.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

149. The present and the past participles are each single words; but we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as a participle, as for example:

His having joined the strikers caused him to lose his job.

The man, having been discharged, left the mill.

In these sentences we have the participle phrases, having joined and having been discharged. Having joined is a participle phrase used as a noun, the subject of the verb caused. Having been discharged is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun man. Notice that having joined is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun his. Having been discharged is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence, man, is the receiver.

These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are complete at the present time.

150. We have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active participle is formed by using having been with the present participle, as having been working. The progressive passive participle is formed by using being with the past participle, as for example, being watched, being driven, being gone, etc. So we have six participles, three active and three passive.

Note the following table:

These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases. Underscore those used as nouns with a single line; those used as adjectives with two lines.

1. He denies having been hired by the employer.

2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner.

3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going.

4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near.

5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well.

6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled.

7. Having finished his work, he rests at last.

8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow.

9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate.

10. Being prepared will not save us from war.

11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career;
Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere.
It's loving and serving the highest and best;
It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest."

Exercise 2

Write the six participle forms of the verbs see and teach, and use in sentences of your own construction.

INFINITIVES

151. We have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

Traveling is pleasant.

Eating is necessary.

Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought? Do you not sometimes say,

To travel is pleasant.

To eat is necessary.

We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. To travel and to eat are used as nouns, subjects of the verb is

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