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Quadrupeds, What They Are and Where Found: A Book of Zoology for Boys
Chapter Eleven.
Squirrels
These pretty little animals are widely distributed over the earth; though to this remark Australia seems to form an exception, since no species has yet been discovered there. However, there is much of that great island continent yet to be explored; and perhaps it may turn out that Australia has its squirrels, as well as other parts of the world – no doubt squirrels with pouches.
In number of species – and also of individuals, it may be added – America excels all other countries, and the great forests of North America may be regarded as the head-quarters of the squirrel tribe; but, if we give precedence to size, the squirrels of the East Indian countries are entitled to the first place.
Animals known as Squirrels are of three very distinct kinds – viz., Squirrels, properly so called; Ground Squirrels: and Flying Squirrels. These three kinds are very naturally separated into three different genera; but the closet naturalists, not content with this simple division, have again subdivided them into other sub-genera, using very difficult names to distinguish them. In our little sketch we shall simply call them by the three names above-mentioned.
The Squirrels, properly so called, are not only tree-climbers, but, as every one knows, dwell habitually upon trees, and there make their nests and their home. And perfectly at home they are among the highest branches; for under no circumstances do they ever miss their footing, or are they in the slightest danger of falling. In fact, they can not only run with the greatest agility along the branches, but equally well with their backs downward; and can spring from branch to branch, and also from tree to tree, over wide intervals of many yards. They can also leap down from the tops of the tallest trees to the earth – a feat often witnessed by squirrel-hunters – and do so without the appearance of having received the slightest injury; for, without pausing a moment on the ground, they continue their flight towards some other tree, where they expect to find better shelter from the short gun or rifle of their human enemy.
The squirrel builds a nest in the tree, similar to that of some birds; but they have also in the same tree a more secure retreat in case of being pursued. This is a hole in the trunk or one of the larger limbs – some natural excavation caused by the decaying of a branch – in short, what is termed a “knot hole,” which is common in many kinds of timber. In this hole the squirrel usually lays up its store of winter food, consisting of nuts, beech-mast, etcetera; and here it takes refuge when hunted, finding the tree-cave a safe asylum. Unless decoyed out again, or, which often happens, frightened out again, by rubbing the trunk with a piece of stick, the squirrel must escape scot-free nine times out of ten, since no hunter would think of felling a huge tree to procure so insignificant a reward as the carcass of a squirrel; and without felling the tree, and splitting it up, too, the creature could not be reached. Various devices, however, are practised to decoy it forth; and these, unfortunately for the little refugee, too often succeed.
The squirrels are the life of the American woods – indeed, a journey through these great forests would often be very monotonous were it not enlivened by the presence and gambols of these beautiful creatures; and in the depth of winter, when the squirrels keep within their dark tree-caves, the solitude of the forest seems redoubled. But even during frost and snow, when the weather is fine and the sun shining brightly, a few will be seen venturing forth, as if to take an airing.
A great many species exist in the forests of North America; sometimes only one, and sometimes several, occupy the same district. They are of different colours and sizes – some as small as the common squirrel of England, while several species are three or four times as large. Some are grey, others brown grey, several species of a fox red, and those esteemed the most beautiful are of a uniform jet black. Several new species have lately been found in the forests of Oregon and California.
Their habits are all nearly alike; but to one species of Grey Squirrel belongs a habit as distinct as it is singular. This is their habit of collecting together in immense flocks of many thousands, and migrating over vast tracts of country, crossing broad rapid rivers, and staying at no obstacle. The object of this migration is not known, only that it appears to be the result of some impulse – such as excites to a similar movement the springboks of South Africa, the buffaloes of North America, and the passenger pigeons.
In Europe the squirrel is represented by the Common Squirrel of our own woods, and which is found throughout the whole of Northern Europe and Asia, wherever there are trees. Although of a reddish colour in England, as well as in France, it assumes different hues, according to the different countries it inhabits; and in the more northern latitudes it is quite grey. Another European species, distinct from the English squirrel, is a denizen of the Pyrenees and the Alps of Dauphiné.
The Palm Squirrel is a beautiful species belonging to the tropical parts of Africa and India, and dwelling principally upon the palm trees – as its name imports.
Another, known as the Barbary Squirrel, belongs to North Africa, and is also a dweller upon palm trees.
The largest, and perhaps the most richly-coated of the tribe, is the Malabar Squirrel of India, which is as large as a domestic cat. It also haunts among palm trees, and is fond of the milk of the cocoa-nut, either in a liquid or solid state.
There are squirrels also in Eastern Africa. India has several species, and the great islands of Madagascar, Ceylon, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, etcetera, have each one or more species of large and beautiful squirrels.
The Ground Squirrels differ from the true squirrels in several respects, though the chief difference lies in the fact that the former make their nest or lair upon the ground, while the latter universally lodge themselves aloft among the branches. The Ground Squirrels can climb, and appear to ascend trees almost as nimbly as their congeners; but they rarely do so unless when pursued, and then but seldom go beyond the lower forks or branches. Their nest is usually in some hole or cavity among the roots, though several species have been lately discovered in rocky regions, dwelling in the crevices of rocks. They approach in habits to the marmot tribe, and seem to link the tree squirrels with these last. Usually, these ground squirrels are striped longitudinally with black, red, and white stripes, giving them a fine appearance; and the species are of different dimensions, from that of the ordinary squirrel to the size of a mouse. In America, for a long time, but one kind was supposed to exist; but latterly a great number of species have been observed and described: denizens of the far West – of the prairies, and remote valleys of the Rocky Mountains.
The African species of ground squirrel, already mentioned as the Palm Squirrel, has its dwelling among the palm trees, on the fruit and roots of which – especially that of the date-palm – it subsists. It is also an inhabitant of India, where there is at least one other species of palm ground squirrel.
In Europe, and throughout the whole of Northern Asia, the ground squirrels are represented by the burunduk– a very interesting little species, quite similar in habits to those of North America.
The Flying Squirrels are the last of the group. These are the most singular of all, and resemble great bats more than squirrels. They possess the power, not exactly of flight, but of making very long leaps from a higher to a lower level, so long that they might almost be regarded as flights. They can pass from one tree to another standing more than a hundred yards apart, and this without descending more than a few feet below the level from which they started. This feat they are enabled to perform by means of a broad membrane that extends from the skin of their fore-legs to that of their thighs, and which, when stretched out, endows them with the properties of a parachute. Their bodies, too, have a flattened shape like the bats; and this also helps to sustain them in the air.
They are true squirrels, however, living upon trees, as the common squirrels do, and looking very like the latter, notwithstanding their winged legs. In one point, however, they differ essentially from the common squirrels; and that is, they are nocturnal in their habits. In the daytime they are never seen, except by accident; but in the twilight, and during a clear night, they may be observed making their long leaps from tree to tree, through the glades or along the edges of the forest. There are several species inhabiting the forests of America, and of late California has yielded several new ones. In the tropical forests of America there are several large species, and the Old World has its flying squirrel in the Polatouka, which inhabits the pine forests of Northern Europe and Asia.
The largest species of these singular quadrupeds appears to belong to the Oriental Islands – to Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and Moluccas, or Spice Islands, as also to Japan. The great Teguan, or flying squirrel of the Moluccas, is in reality as large as a cat!
The singular Ay-ay of Madagascar is sometimes classed among the squirrels and sometimes among the lemurs. It certainly bears a great resemblance to the squirrel family; but the habits of all animals belonging to Madagascar are so little known that it is difficult to assign them to that exact genus in which Nature intended they should be placed.
Chapter Twelve.
Hares, Rabbits, and other Rodents
The Hare, and its very near congener, the Rabbit, are animals too well-known to need description; but it is necessary to say that, besides the species of both, peculiar to Great Britain, there are many other kinds in other parts of the world. Even in Britain itself, including Ireland, there are several distinct sorts both of hares and rabbits; for the Irish hare is distinct, being a larger, stronger, and even swifter animal than the English hare, and having many other points peculiar to it. Moreover, in the northern and mountainous parts of Scotland there is found the Varying or Alpine Hare, whose fur changes in the winter season to a snowy whiteness. But I may here remark, that the Irish hare also possesses this singular power of transformation, since upon the mountains of the north, especially upon the Mourne range, in county Down, white hares have been frequently observed. Is this the Irish hare turned white, or the true Alpine hare of Pallas?
Hares and rabbits are peculiarly the denizens of cold countries, as their warm woolly covering would plainly indicate. In tropical climates their place is supplied by other kinds of rodents, that resemble them in habits, if not in “dress.” Of these other animals we shall presently speak. To the above remark, however a few partial exceptions may be brought forward; since there is a species existing in Egypt known as the Egyptian Hare, and there are three others at the Cape – the Rock Hare, the Burrow Hare, and the Vlakte Haas. These, however, differ very considerably from the common hares and rabbits of northern countries; and the remark still holds good, that in the tropics – properly so called – the hare does not exist: neither has any true hare been found in the new world of Australia.
Otherwise, hares are plenteous in the different continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In Asia there is a species inhabiting the regions of the Altai Mountains, and another peculiar to the Siberian territory, called the Tolai. There is an Indian species found in the Nepaul Mountains, and a curious variety, also a native of Nepaul and the Himalayas, known as the Woolly Hare of Thibet.
The Polar Hare, valued for its beautiful white fur, inhabits the countries around the Arctic Ocean, and is common in Labrador and the Hudson’s Bay territory. In North America, also, there are several other species of hares: the Marsh, or Swamp Hare, of the Southern United States, which dwells among the extensive marshes of the Carolinas and Louisiana, and which freely takes to the water; the Rabbit of the Middle States, which is a true hare, though from its small size usually termed a rabbit; the Californian Hare, indigenous to California, and also another Marsh Hare, belonging to the same country. Upon the prairies several distinct species have lately been discovered, among which the Sage Hare deserves especial mention. This kind derives its name from its being a dweller on the desert plains, where scarce any other vegetation exists except the artemisia, or wild sage plant, the leaves of which constitute the principal food of the animal, rendering its flesh almost uneatable.
The Calling Hares differ very much from the common hares and rabbits – so much as to constitute a separate genus. Their ears are shorter, and they are altogether without tails. Their habits, however, are very similar to those of the hare family, and they are therefore very naturally grouped with the latter. They derive their trivial name from the habit of uttering a note, which somewhat resembles the piping of a quail, and which can be heard at a very great distance. This note is repeated three or four times at night and morning, but is seldom heard during the middle of the day, unless when the weather is cloudy.
The calling hares are distributed over Asia and North America. At least two species belong to the Himalayan country, and one is found in Cabul. In Siberia and Northern Russia there is another, called the Eadajac; and several species inhabit the northern countries of America – some so small as scarcely to exceed the dimensions of a rat! The Little Chief is one of these tiny creatures long known; but late explorers of the Rocky Mountain regions have discovered a species still smaller than the little chief.
The Cavies appear to represent the hare family in the tropical parts of America. It is true that these last differ from hares in many particulars; but they have also many points of resemblance, and they may be grouped together in a very natural manner. They live much in the same manner; they are swift and inoffensive as the hares; but, instead of being clothed in soft wool, which would be altogether unsuitable to the climate in which they dwell, the cavies have a covering of hair so fine and thin as to convey to the touch a feeling of coolness rather than warmth. Some of the cavies are among the largest animals of the Rodent Family; for instance, the great Capivara, which is equal in size to an ordinary pig. This species is not a swift runner upon land; but it is semi-aquatic in its habits, and can swim and dive like an otter, its feet being webbed or palmated. It herds in troops of from five or ten to fifty in number, and is found upon the banks of all the great South American rivers, where it has for its chief enemy the fierce jaguar.
The Guinea Pig is one of the family of cavies. This beautiful little animal is too well-known to require description. It may be remarked, however, that the name Guinea Pig is altogether a mistake, since the creature is found wild only in South America, and is not a native of Guinea in Africa. Very likely it was originally brought from Guiana, and this has led to the misnomer. There are several species of Guinea pig in South America, differing from one another in size, shape, and colour. Besides the large Capivara and the little Guinea Pig, there are several intermediate kinds. These are known as the True Cavies, and are usually called Agoutis, or Acouchis. The agoutis are about the size of the common hare, and run almost as swiftly. For their food they prefer nuts to herbage, which is natural enough in a region where the latter is scanty and the former exists in plenty; and in eating they “squat” upright on their haunches, and convey the food to their mouth after the manner of squirrels. The agouti, like the hare, frequently rolls over when descending a hill at full speed – a habit, or rather an accident, due to the same cause in both animals, namely, the great length of the hind legs. When angry, the agouti stamps with the fore-feet, grunts like a young pig, and erects the bristly hair upon its crupper after the manner of porcupines.
There are many species of agouti throughout tropical America and the West India Islands, and the range of the genus extends as far south as the plains of Patagonia.
The Pacas form another genus belonging to the family of the cavies that may be also grouped with the hares and rabbits. They burrow like the common rabbit, and their food consists of nuts, fruits, and roots. Their flesh is excellent; and on this account they are hunted eagerly, both by the Indians and whites who dwell in the countries where they are found. There are several species of them in South America, and they were also very common at one time in the West India Islands; but on account of the persecution of many enemies – more especially of hunters – they are now comparatively rare.
With the hares and rabbits may be classed still another family of South American animals, and one of the most interesting of the whole group. These are the Chinchillas and Viscachas. The place assigned to them by some naturalists is with the hamsters, and therefore they are grouped with the rats; but an examination into the habits of these animals shows that they are in reality representatives of the hares and rabbits on the elevated table-lands of Chili and Peru, as also over the whole plain country of La Plata and Patagonia. There are several species known indifferently as Viscachas and Chinchillas; but the true Chinchilla, celebrated for its soft and beautiful woolly coat, is an inhabitant of the elevated plateaux of the Andes, where the climate is as cold as in Siberia itself. The natural history of these rodents is full of curious interest, and deserves to be given more in detail, if our space would only admit of it.
Chapter Thirteen.
Elephants
The Elephant is by far the largest of land animals, and for this reason one of the most interesting to the student of zoology; but even without this superiority, he possesses qualities that entitle him to rank among the curious objects of creation.
In ages long gone by there were elephants upon the earth – or animals resembling elephants – as much larger than the existing species as these are superior in size to other quadrupeds. Such were the mammoths and mastodons, the skeletons of which are occasionally found buried beneath the surface of the soil in different parts of the world.
As might be expected, the species of this gigantic quadruped are not numerous. For a long time there was supposed to be only one; but this was an erroneous belief, and it is now proved that there are at least two, since the elephants of Africa and those of Asia are altogether different from each other. It is not quite certain that the elephant of the Island of Ceylon is identically the same as other Indian elephants; and in the Asiatic countries and islands there are varieties differing from each other in size, and other peculiarities, quite as much as any of them does from the elephant of Africa. Again, in Africa itself we find that this great creature has its varieties – some larger and some smaller, according to the part of the country in which they are found. Even the natives of both Africa and the Indian territories recognise different kinds, proving that on both continents there are several permanent varieties, if not species.
In the Indian countries these varieties have received distinct names – just as our breeds of dogs – and an elephant is valued according to the breed or caste to which he belongs; for in India caste is a universal idea, even among animals.
There are two principal castes – the Koomareah, of princely race; and the Merghee, or hunting elephant. These two kinds differ a good deal – as much, indeed, as if they were separate species. The koomareah is deep-bodied, strong, and compact, with a very large trunk and short thick legs. As a large trunk is considered the great beauty of an elephant, the koomareah is therefore preferred to the merghee; besides, he is also superior to the latter in strength and powers of endurance.
The merghee is a taller animal, but neither so compact nor so strong, and his trunk is short and slender in proportion to his height. He travels faster, however; and for this reason is oftener employed in the chase.
A cross between these two varieties is called a Sunkareah, which signifies a mixed breed or mule; and in a herd of elephants there will be found not only sunkareahs, but several varieties of cross breeds between the koomareahs and merghees. These “mules” are prized if they partake more of the nature of the princely caste, and less valued when nearer to the merghee.
In addition to these distinctions, another very important one is found in the size and shape of the teeth. The Dauntelah is one with very large teeth, in opposition to the Mookna, in which the tusks are of small dimensions, and scarcely visible outside the mouth. The Europeans prefer elephants of the mookna variety, as these are of milder disposition than the dauntelahs; but the natives prize the large-toothed kinds, taking the chance of being able to tame them to submission. There are many degrees between the mookna and dauntelah, founded on the form of the tusks. Those of the Pullung-daunt project forward with an almost horizontal curve, while the straight tusks of the mooknas point directly downwards. Nearly a dozen varieties or breeds are thus established among the elephants of India that are held in a state of domestication.
White elephants are also met with, and are highly prized by the rajahs and wealthy nobles. These are mere varieties, produced by albinism, and may belong to any of the castes already described.
It has been further ascertained that the elephants of different Indian countries vary a good deal in point of size. Those from the southern districts, and some of the larger islands, are larger and stronger than the elephants of Nepaul and other mountain countries in the north. The finest are those of Cochin China and the Burmese territories of Pegu, while those of Ceylon are even superior to the kinds indigenous to Northern India.
The African elephants are said also to be larger as they dwell nearer to the Equator; and from this it would appear that the elephant is essentially a tropical animal, and thrives best in the climate of the torrid zone.
The Asiatic elephant is found wild as well as domesticated in nearly all the Indian countries, as also in many of the large islands. Its range northward is bounded by the lower hills of the Himalayas; and among these, especially through the saul forests, these huge animals roam about in herds, each herd being under the guidance or leadership of an old male, or “bull,” as he is termed. As an elephant brings a considerable sum of money, even in India, these are eagerly hunted; and their capture is accomplished by decoying them into a pound or enclosure constructed for the purpose, where ropes are attached to them, and then tied to the neighbouring trees. The decoy used is a tame elephant, that has been already trained for the purpose.
There are in India, as well as in Africa, certain old bull elephants that lead a solitary life, and that are scarcely ever seen in company with the herds. These bachelors are usually of a morose and fierce disposition, and when one of them is captured it requires all the skill of the hunters to keep clear of danger. These wild bulls are larger and stronger than the common kind, and so untamable in their ferocity that even when captured no use can be made of them, since they will die rather than submit to being trained. They are called Goondahs by the people of Hindostau, and by English hunters Rogues or Rovers.
The African elephant next merits attention. There is no difficulty in distinguishing this species from any of the Indian varieties. The immensely large ears constitute a marked characteristic of the former, which at once becomes recognisable. Other points of difference are the greater convexity of the forehead or skull and the larger size of the tusks; though this last point of distinction is not always to be depended upon, since there are Indian elephants with tusks of similar dimensions. Generally, however, the African elephants have the largest “ivories.”
In point of bulk the Asiatic species has been considered superior; but this belief may not be correct. Certain circumstances should be taken into account. The Asiatic elephant is living in a domesticated state, and this may have produced a greater size, as it does in the case of most other quadrupeds. Another circumstance: the African elephants of our collections have been mostly obtained from the Cape, or the regions contiguous to it. But it is now known that in the countries nearer to the equator there exists a much larger kind, that appears to be quite as bulky as any of the Asiatic varieties.
The height of the elephant has been much exaggerated by travellers – some having been described as measuring eighteen feet from the foot to the top of the shoulder! An authority on this subject, who measured the largest he could meet with in different parts of India, found none that stood over twelve feet, and this appears to be the actual height of the very biggest of elephants.
The African elephants have not been tamed – at least not in modern times; but it is certain that the elephants used by the Carthaginians in their wars with the Romans were of this species; and also that African elephants were the species exhibited by Caesar and Pompey in the Roman arena.
In a wild state the African elephant has a wide range – from the Cape country on the south to Senegal on the western side, throughout the whole of Central Africa, and along the oriental coast to the valley of the Nile; but it is not very certain whether the elephant of the eastern countries of Africa is the African species or a variety of the Asiatic kind. The African elephant is said to be fiercer than that of Asia; but this is a doubtful statement; and perhaps the habits of the two do not materially differ, farther than might be expected from a difference of climate, food, and other external circumstances.
