Gore John Ellard
Astronomical Curiosities: Facts and Fallacies
CHAPTER V
The Moon
The total area of the moon’s surface is about equal to that of North and South America. The actual surface visible at any one time is about equal to North America.
The famous lunar observer, Schröter, thought that the moon had an atmosphere, but estimated its height at only a little over a mile. Its density he supposed to be less than that of the vacuum in an air-pump. Recent investigations, however, seem to show that owing to its small mass and attractive force the moon could not retain an atmosphere like that of the earth.
Prof. N. S. Shaler, of Harvard (U.S.A.), finds from a study of the moon (from a geological point of view) with the 15-inch refractor of the Harvard Observatory, that our satellite has no atmosphere nor any form of organic life, and he believes that its surface “was brought to its present condition before the earth had even a solid crust.”79
There is a curious illusion with reference to the moon’s apparent diameter referred to by Proctor.80 If, when the moon is absent in the winter months, we ask a person whether the moon’s diameter is greater or less than the distance between the stars δ and ε, and ε and ζ Orionis, the three well-known stars in the “belt of Orion,” the answer will probably be that the moon’s apparent diameter is about equal to each of these distances. But in reality the apparent distance between δ and ε Orionis (or between ε and ζ, which is about the same) is more than double the moon’s apparent diameter. This seems at first sight a startling statement; but its truth is, of course, beyond all doubt and is not open to argument. Proctor points out that if a person estimates the moon as a foot in diameter, as its apparent diameter is about half a degree, this would imply that the observer estimates the circumference of the star sphere as about 720 feet (360° × 2), and hence the radius (or the moon’s distance from the earth) about 115 feet. But in reality all such estimates have no scientific (that is, accurate) meaning. Some of the ancients, such as Aristotle, Cicero, and Heraclitus, seem to have estimated the moon’s apparent diameter at about a foot.81 This shows that even great minds may make serious mistakes.
It has been stated by some writer that the moon as seen with the highest powers of the great Yerkes telescope (40 inches aperture) appears “just as it would be seen with the naked eye if it were suspended 60 miles over our heads.” But this statement is quite erroneous. The moon as seen with the naked eye or with a telescope shows us nearly a whole hemisphere of its surface. But if the eye were placed only 60 miles from the moon’s surface, we should see only a small portion of its surface. In fact, it is a curious paradox that the nearer the eye is to a sphere the less we see of its surface! The truth of this will be evident from the fact that on a level plain an eye placed at a height, say 5 feet, sees a very small portion indeed of the earth’s surface, and the higher we ascend the more of the surface we see. I find that at a distance of 60 miles from the moon’s surface we should only see a small portion of its visible hemisphere (about 1⁄90th). The lunar features would also appear under a different aspect. The view would be more of a landscape than that seen in any telescope. This view of the matter is not new. It has been previously pointed out, especially by M. Flammarion and Mr. Whitmell, but its truth is not, I think, generally recognized. Prof. Newcomb doubts whether with any telescope the moon has ever been seen so well as it would be if brought within 500 miles of the earth.
A relief map of the moon 19 feet in diameter was added, in 1898, to the Field Columbian Museum (U.S.A.). It was prepared with great care from the lunar charts of Beer and Mädler, and Dr. Schmidt of the Athens Observatory, and it shows the lunar features very accurately. Its construction took five years.
On a photograph of a part of the moon’s surface near the crater Eratosthenes, Prof. William H. Pickering finds markings which very much resemble the so-called “canals” of Mars. The photograph was taken in Jamaica, and a copy of it is given in Prof. Pickering’s book on the Moon, and in Popular Astronomy, February, 1904.
Experiments made in America by Messrs. Stebbins and F. C. Brown, by means of selenium cells, show that the light of the full moon is about nine times that of the half moon;82 and that “the moon is brighter between the first quarter and full than in the corresponding phase after full moon.” They also find that the light of the full moon is equal to “0·23 candle power,”[83] that is, according to the method of measurement used in America, its light is equal to 0·23 of a standard candle placed at a distance of one metre (39·37 inches) from the eye.83
Mr. H. H. Kimball finds that no less than 52 per cent. of the observed changes in intensity of the “earth-shine” visible on the moon when at or near the crescent phase is due to the eccentricity of the lunar orbit, and “this is probably much greater than could be expected from any increase or diminution in the average cloudiness over the hemisphere of the earth reflecting light to the moon.”84
The “moon maiden” is a term applied to a fancied resemblance of a portion of the Sinus Iridum to a female head. It forms the “promontory” known as Cape Heraclides, and may be looked for when the moon’s “age” is about 11 days. Mr. C. J. Caswell, who observed it on September 29, 1895, describes it as resembling “a beautiful silver statuette of a graceful female figure with flowing hair.”
M. Landerer finds that the angle of polarization of the moon’s surface – about 33° – agrees well with the polarizing angle for many specimens of igneous rocks (30° 51′ to 33° 46′). The polarizing angle for ice is more than 37°, and this fact is opposed to the theories of lunar glaciation advanced by some observers.85
Kepler states in his Somnium that he saw the moon in the crescent phase on the morning and evening of the same day (that is, before and after conjunction with the sun). Kepler could see 14 stars in the Pleiades with the naked eye, so his eyesight must have been exceptionally keen.
Investigations on ancient eclipses of the moon show that the eclipse mentioned by Josephus as having occurred before the death of Herod is probably that which took place on September 15, B.C. 5. This occurred about 9.45 p.m.; and probably about six months before the death of Herod (St. Matthew ii. 15).
The total lunar eclipse which occurred on October 4, 1884, was remarkable for the almost total disappearance of the moon during totality. One observer says that “in the open air, if one had not known exactly where to look for it, one might have searched for some time without discovering it. I speak of course of the naked eye appearance.”86 On the other hand the same observer, speaking of the total eclipse of the moon on August 23, 1877, which was a bright one, says —
“The moon even in the middle of the total phase was a conspicuous object in the sky, and the ruddy colour was well marked. In the very middle of the eclipse the degree of illumination was as nearly as possible equal all round the edge of the moon, the central parts being darker than those near the edge.”
In Roger de Hovedin’s Chronicle (A.D. 756) an account is given of the occultation of “a bright star,” by the moon during a total eclipse. This is confirmed by Simeon of Durham, who also dates the eclipse A.D. 756. This is, however, a mistake, the eclipse having occurred on the evening of November 23, A.D. 755. Calvisius supposed that the occulted “star” might have been Aldebaran. Pingré, however, showed that this was impossible, and Struyck, in 1740, showed that the planet Jupiter was the “star” referred to by the early observer. Further calculations by Hind (1885) show conclusively that Struyck was quite correct, and that the phenomenon described in the old chronicles was the occultation of Jupiter by a totally eclipsed moon – a rather unique phenomenon.87
An occultation of Mars by the moon is recorded by the Chinese, on February 14, B.C. 69, and one of Venus, on March 30, A.D. 361. These have also been verified by Hind, and his calculations show the accuracy of these old Chinese records.
It has been suggested that the moon may possibly have a satellite revolving round it, as the moon itself revolves round the earth. This would, of course, form an object of great interest. During the total lunar eclipses of March 10 and September 3, 1895, a careful photographic search was made by Prof. Barnard for a possible lunar satellite. The eclipse of March 10 was not very suitable for the purpose owing to a hazy sky, but that of September 3 was “entirely satisfactory,” as the sky was very clear, and the duration of totality was very long. On the latter occasion “six splendid” photographs were obtained of the total phase with a 6-inch Willard lens. The result was that none of these photographs “show anything which might be taken for a lunar satellite,” at least any satellite as bright as the 10th or 12th magnitude. It is, of course, just possible that the supposed satellite might have been behind the moon during the totality.
With reference to the attraction between the earth and moon, Sir Oliver Lodge says —
“The force with which the moon is held in its orbit would be great enough to tear asunder a steel rod 400 miles thick, with a tenacity of 30 tons to the square inch, so that if the moon and earth were connected by steel instead of gravity, a forest of pillars would be necessary to whirl the system once a month round their common centre of gravity. Such a force necessarily implies enormous tensure or pressure in the medium. Maxwell calculates that the gravitational stress near the earth, which we must suppose to exist in the invisible medium, is 3000 times greater than what the strongest steel can stand, and near the sun it should be 2500 times as great as that.”88
With reference to the names given to “craters” on the moon, Prof. W. H. Pickering says,89 “The system of nomenclature is, I think, unfortunate. The names of the chief craters are generally those of men who have done little or nothing for selenography, or even for astronomy, while the men who should be really commemorated are represented in general by small and unimportant craters,” and again —
“A serious objection to the whole system of nomenclature lies in the fact that it has apparently been used by some selenographers, from the earliest times up to the present, as a means of satisfying their spite against some of their contemporaries. Under the guise of pretending to honour them by placing their names in perpetuity upon the moon, they have used their names merely to designate the smallest objects that their telescopes were capable of showing. An interesting illustration of this point is found in the craters of Galileo and Riccioli, which lie close together on the moon. It will be remembered that Galileo was the discoverer of the craters on the moon. Both names were given by Riccioli, and the relative size and importance of the craters [Riccioli large, and Galileo very small] probably indicates to us the relative importance that he assigned to the two men themselves. Other examples might be quoted of craters named in the same spirit after men still living… With the exception of Maedler, one might almost say, the more prominent the selenographer the more insignificant the crater.”
The mathematical treatment of the lunar theory is a problem of great difficulty. The famous mathematician, Euler, described it as incredibile stadium atque indefessus labor.90
With reference to the “earth-shine” on the moon when in the crescent phase, Humboldt says, “Lambert made the remarkable observation (14th of February, 1774) of a change of the ash-coloured moonlight into an olive-green colour, bordering upon yellow. The moon, which then stood vertically over the Atlantic Ocean, received upon its night side the green terrestrial light, which is reflected towards her when the sky is clear by the forest districts of South America.”91 Arago said, “Il n’est donc pas impossible, malgré tout ce qu’un pareil résultat exciterait de surprise au premier coup d’œil qu’un jour les météorologistes aillent puiser dans l’aspect de la Lune des notions précieuses sur l’etat moyen de diaphanité de l’atmosphère terrestre, dans les hemisphères qui successivement concurrent à la production de la lumière cendrée.”92
The “earth-shine” on the new moon was successfully photographed in February, 1895, by Prof. Barnard at the Lick Observatory, with a 6-inch Willard portrait lens. He says —
“The earth-lit globe stands out beautifully round, encircled by the slender crescent. All the ‘seas’ are conspicuously visible, as are also the other prominent features, especially the region about Tycho. Aristarchus and Copernicus appear as bright specks, and the light streams from Tycho are very distinct.”93
Kepler found that the moon completely disappeared during the total eclipse of December 9, 1601, and Hevelius observed the same phenomenon during the eclipse of April 25, 1642, when “not a vestige of the moon could be seen.”94 In the total lunar eclipse of June 10, 1816, the moon during totality was not visible in London, even with a telescope![95]
The lunar mountains are relatively much higher than those on the earth. Beer and Mädler found the following heights: Dörfel, 23,174 feet; Newton, 22,141; Casatus, 21,102; Curtius, 20,632; Callippus, 18,946; and Tycho, 18,748 feet.95
Taking the earth’s diameter at 7912 miles, the moon’s diameter, 2163 miles, and the height of Mount Everest as 29,000 feet, I find that
From which it follows that the lunar mountains are proportionately about three times higher than those on the earth.
According to an hypothesis recently advanced by Dr. See, all the satellites of the solar system, including our moon, were “captured” by their primaries. He thinks, therefore, that the “moon came to earth from heavenly space.”96
CHAPTER VI
Mars
Mars was called by the ancients “the vanishing star,” owing to the long periods during which it is practically invisible from the earth.97 It was also called πυρόεις and Hercules.
I have seen it stated in a book on the “Solar System” by a well-known astronomer that the axis of Mars “is inclined to the plane of the orbit” at an angle of 24° 50′! But this is quite erroneous. The angle given is the angle between the plane of the planet’s equator and the plane of its orbit, which is quite a different thing. This angle, which may be called the obliquity of Mars’ ecliptic, does not differ much from that of the earth. Lowell finds it 23° 13′ from observations in 1907.98
The late Mr. Proctor thought that Mars is “far the reddest star in the heavens; Aldebaran and Antares are pale beside him.”99 But this does not agree with my experience. Antares is to my eye quite as red as Mars. Its name is derived from two Greek words implying “redder than Mars.” The colour of Aldebaran is, I think, quite comparable with that of the “ruddy planet.” In the telescope the colour of Mars is, I believe, more yellow than red, but I have not seen the planet very often in a telescope. Sir John Herschel suggested that the reddish colour of Mars may possibly be due to red rocks, like those of the Old Red Sandstone, and the red soil often associated with such rocks, as I have myself noticed near Torquay and other places in Devonshire.
The ruddy colour of Mars was formerly thought to be due to the great density of its atmosphere. But modern observations seem to show that the planet’s atmosphere is, on the contrary, much rarer than that of the earth. The persistent visibility of the markings on its surface shows that its atmosphere cannot be cloud-laden like ours; and the spectroscope shows that the water vapour present is – although perceptible – less than that of our terrestrial envelope.
The existence of water vapour is clearly shown by photographs of the planet’s spectrum taken by Mr. Slipher at the Lowell Observatory in 1908. These show that the water vapour bands a and near D are stronger in the spectrum of Mars than in that of the moon at the same altitude.100
The dark markings on Mars were formerly supposed to represent water and the light parts land. But this idea has now been abandoned. Light reflected from a water surface is polarized at certain angles. Prof. W. H. Pickering, in his observations on Mars, finds no trace of polarization in the light reflected from the dark parts of the planet. But under the same conditions he finds that the bluish-black ring surrounding the white polar cap shows a well-marked polarization of light, thus indicating that this dark ring is probably water.101
Projections on the limb of the planet have frequently been observed in America. These are known not to be mountains, as they do not reappear under similar conditions. They are supposed to be clouds, and one seen in December, 1900, has been explained as a cloud lying at a height of some 13 miles above the planet’s surface and drifting at the rate of about 27 miles an hour. If there are any mountains on Mars they have not yet been discovered.
The existence of the so-called “canals” of Mars is supposed to be confirmed by Lowell’s photographs of the planet. But what these “canals” really represent, that is the question. They have certainly an artificial look about them, and they form one of the most curious and interesting problems in the heavens. Prof. Lowell says —
“Most suggestive of all Martian phenomena are the canals. Were they more generally observable the world would have been spared much scepticism and more theory. They may of course not be artificial, but observations here [Flagstaff] indicate that they are; as will, I think, appear from the drawings. For it is one thing to see two or three canals and quite another to have the planet’s disc mapped with them on a most elaborate system of triangulation. In the first place they are this season (August, 1894) bluish-green, of the same colour as the seas into which the longer ones all eventually debouch. In the next place they are almost without exception geodetically straight, supernaturally so, and this in spite of their leading in every possible direction. Then they are of apparently nearly uniform width throughout their length. What they are is another matter. Their mere aspect, however, is enough to cause all theories about glaciation fissures or surface cracks to die an instant and natural death.”102
Some of the observed colour-changes on Mars are very curious. In April, 1905, Mr. Lowell observed that the marking known as Mare Erythræum, just above Syrtis, had “changed from a blue-green to a chocolate-brown colour.” The season on Mars corresponded with our February.
Signor V. Cerulli says that, having observed Mars regularly for ten years, he has come to the conclusion that the actual existence of the “canals” is as much a subject for physiological as for astronomical investigation. He states that “the phenomena observed are so near the limit of the range of the human eye that in observing them one really experiences an effect accompanying the ‘birth of vision.’ That is to say, the eye sees more and more as it becomes accustomed, or strained, to the delicate markings, and thus the joining up of spots to form ‘canals’ and the gemination of the latter follow as a physiological effect, and need not necessarily be subjective phenomena seen by the unaccustomed eye.”103
The possibility of life on Mars has been recently much discussed; some denying, others asserting. M. E. Rogovsky says —
“As free oxygen and carbonic dioxide may exist in the atmosphere of Mars, vegetable and animal life is quite possible. If the temperature which prevails upon Mars is nearer to -36 °C. than to -73 °C., the existence of living beings like ourselves is possible. In fact, the ice of some Greenland and Alpine glaciers is covered by red algæ (Sphærella nivalis); we find there also different species of rotaloria, variegated spiders, and other animals on the snow fields illuminated by the sun; at the edges of glacier snows in the Tyrol we see violet bells of Soldanella pusilla, the stalks of which make their way through the snow by producing heat which melts it round about them. Finally the Siberian town Verkhociansk, near Yakutsk, exists, though the temperature there falls to -69°·8 C. and the mean temperature of January to -51°·2, and the mean pressure of the vapour of water is less than 0·05mm. It is possible, therefore, that living beings have become adapted to the conditions now prevailing upon Mars after the lapse of many ages, and live at an even lower temperature than upon the earth, developing the necessary heat themselves.”
M. Rogovsky adds, “Water in organisms is mainly a liquid or solvent, and many other liquids may be the same. We have no reason to believe that life is possible only under the same conditions and with the same chemical composition of organisms as upon the earth, although indeed we cannot affirm that they actually exist on Mars.”104 With the above views the present writer fully concurs.
Prof. Lowell thinks that the polar regions of Mars, both north and south, are actually warmer than the corresponding regions of the earth, although the mean temperature of the planet is probably twelve degrees lower than the earth’s mean temperature.105
A writer in Astronomy and Astrophysics (1892, p. 748) says —
“Whether the planet Mars is inhabited or not seems to be the all-absorbing question with the ordinary reader. With the astronomer this query is almost the last thing about the planet that he would think of when he has an opportunity to study its surface markings … no astronomer claims to know whether the planet is inhabited or not.”
Several suggestions have been made with reference to the possibility of signalling to Mars. But, as Mr. Larkin of Mount Lowe (U.S.A.) points out, all writers on this subject seem to forget the fact that the night side of two planets are never turned towards each other. “When the sun is between them it is day on the side of Mars which is towards us, and also day on the side of the earth which is towards Mars. When they are on the same side of the sun, it is day on Mars when night on the earth, and for this reason they could never see our signals. This should make it apparent that the task of signalling to Mars is a more difficult one than the most hopeful theorist has probably considered. All this is under the supposition that the Martians (if there are such) are beings like ourselves. If they are not like us, we cannot guess what they are like.”106 These views seem to me to be undoubtedly correct, and show the futility of visual signals. Electricity might, however, be conceivably used for the purpose; but even this seems highly improbable.
Prof. Newcomb, in his work Astronomy for Everybody, says with reference to this question, “The reader will excuse me from saying nothing in this chapter about the possible inhabitants of Mars. He knows just as much about the subject as I do, and that is nothing at all.”
It is, however, quite possible that life in some form may exist on Mars. As Lowell well says, “Life but waits in the wings of existence for its cue to enter the scene the moment the stage is set.”107 With reference to the “canals” he says —
“It is certainly no exaggeration to say that they are the most astonishing objects to be viewed in the heavens. There are celestial sights more dazzling, spectacles that inspire more awe, but to the thoughtful observer who is privileged to see them well, there is nothing in the sky so profoundly impressive as these canals of Mars.”108
The eminent Swedish physicist Arrhenius thinks that the mean annual temperature on Mars may possibly be as high as 50° F. He says, “Sometimes the snow-caps on the poles of Mars disappear entirely during the Mars summer; this never happens on our terrestrial poles. The mean temperature of Mars must therefore be above zero, probably about +10° [Centigrade = 50° Fahrenheit]. Organic life may very probably thrive, therefore, on Mars.”109 He thinks that this excess of mean temperature above the calculated temperature may be due to an increased amount of carbonic acid in the planet’s atmosphere, and says “any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth’s surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°.”110
Denning says, —111
“A few years ago, when christening celestial formations was more in fashion than it is now, a man simply had to use a telescope for an evening or two on Mars or the moon, and spice the relation of his seeings with something in the way of novelty, when his name would be pretty certainly attached to an object and hung in the heavens for all time! A writer in the Astronomical Register for January, 1879, humorously suggested that ‘the matter should be put into the hands of an advertising agent,’ and ‘made the means of raising a revenue for astronomical purposes.’ Some men would not object to pay handsomely for the distinction of having their names applied to the seas and continents of Mars or the craters of the moon.”
An occultation of Mars by the moon is recorded by Aristotle as having occurred on April 4, 357 B.C.112
Seen from Mars the maximum apparent distance between the earth and moon would vary from 3½′ to nearly 17′.113